Charles River

*Includes pictures *Includes ancient accounts of Damascus' history *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Nicolaus of Damascus, in the fourth book of his History, says thus: 'Abraham reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out of the land above Babylon, called the land of the Chaldeans: but, after a long time, he got him up, and removed from that country also, with his people, and went into the land then called the land of Canaan, but now the land of Judea, and this when his posterity were become a multitude; as to which posterity of his, we relate their history in another work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in the country of Damascus; and there is shown a village named from him, The Habitation of Abraham.'" - Josephus "In Damascus there is a mosque that has no equal in the world, not one with such fine proportion, nor one so solidly constructed, nor one vaulted so securely, nor one more marvellously laid out, nor one so admirably decorated in gold mosaics and diverse designs, with enamelled tiles and polished marbles." - Muhammad al-Idrisi, 1154 Throughout history, Syria has been dominated not by one great city but by two. Aside from Aleppo to the north, the religious and commercial metropolis of Damascus has been a place desired by the powerful. For thousands of years the Phoenicians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Muslims all vied for control of the city. Damascus has many important architectural sites dating from almost all eras of its history, and vestiges of the past have existed and been valued in Damascus throughout its existence. The history of Damascus from the Byzantine period to the 12th century is particularly fascinating, in terms of its role as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate and the changes that it experienced when the Abbasid Caliphate and Seljuk dynasty came to power. At Damascus, the vibrant capital of modern Syria, one can experience the passion and spirituality of the many faiths that have coexisted in Syria for centuries. The stories of Damascus are a living embodiment of the age of Islamic renaissance; the city has one of the oldest and most important mosques in the world, and it has a vibrant history linked to the rise of Islam in the region. The Umayyad Mosque is a wonderful illustration of the continuity of sacred sites in the city through the millennia. Although it has never been subjected to an archaeological investigation, this was probably the site of a temple of the Semitic thunder god Haddad, and it was certainly the site of the Roman cult of Jupiter following the amalgamation of Haddad with the Roman god, typical of the syncretic approach that the Romans took to foreign religions. It was also certainly the site of the Christian Cathedral of St. John the Baptist; in fact, it may be surprising to learn that the relics of St. John the Baptist are held within this mosque, and are revered by Muslims and Christians alike. Christians make up about 10 percent of the population, with the remainder being mostly Muslim. A number of Christian holy sites relating to the conversion and work of St. Paul - who is considered by many to be the main founder of the Christian church after Jesus - can be found in Damascus. The longstanding tolerance and respect between people of different faiths in Syria is a noteworthy feature of this exceptional city. Damascus: The History and Legacy of the Syrian Capital from Antiquity to Today examines the tumultuous history of one of the most important places in the Middle East. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Damascus like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes ancient accounts of Damascus' history*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Nicolaus of Damascus, in the fourth book of his History, says thus: 'Abraham reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out of the land above Babylon, called the land of the Chaldeans: but, after a long time, he got him up, and removed from that country also, with his people, and went into the land then called the land of Canaan, but now the land of Judea, and this when his posterity were become a multitude; as to which posterity of his, we relate their history in another work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in the country of Damascus; and there is shown a village named from him, The Habitation of Abraham.'" - Josephus"In Damascus there is a mosque that has no equal in the world, not one with such fine proportion, nor one so solidly constructed, nor one vaulted so securely, nor one more marvellously laid out, nor one so admirably decorated in gold mosaics and diverse designs, with enamelled tiles and polished marbles." - Muhammad al-Idrisi, 1154Throughout history, Syria has been dominated not by one great city but by two. Aside from Aleppo to the north, the religious and commercial metropolis of Damascus has been a place desired by the powerful. For thousands of years the Phoenicians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, Christians, and Muslims all vied for control of the city. Damascus has many important architectural sites dating from almost all eras of its history, and vestiges of the past have existed and been valued in Damascus throughout its existence. The history of Damascus from the Byzantine period to the 12th century is particularly fascinating, in terms of its role as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate and the changes that it experienced when the Abbasid Caliphate and Seljuk dynasty came to power. At Damascus, the vibrant capital of modern Syria, one can experience the passion and spirituality of the many faiths that have coexisted in Syria for centuries. The stories of Damascus are a living embodiment of the age of Islamic renaissance; the city has one of the oldest and most important mosques in the world, and it has a vibrant history linked to the rise of Islam in the region. The Umayyad Mosque is a wonderful illustration of the continuity of sacred sites in the city through the millennia. Although it has never been subjected to an archaeological investigation, this was probably the site of a temple of the Semitic thunder god Haddad, and it was certainly the site of the Roman cult of Jupiter following the amalgamation of Haddad with the Roman god, typical of the syncretic approach that the Romans took to foreign religions. It was also certainly the site of the Christian Cathedral of St. John the Baptist; in fact, it may be surprising to learn that the relics of St. John the Baptist are held within this mosque, and are revered by Muslims and Christians alike. Christians make up about 10 percent of the population, with the remainder being mostly Muslim. A number of Christian holy sites relating to the conversion and work of St. Paul - who is considered by many to be the main founder of the Christian church after Jesus - can be found in Damascus. The longstanding tolerance and respect between people of different faiths in Syria is a noteworthy feature of this exceptional city. Damascus: The History and Legacy of the Syrian Capital from Antiquity to Today examines the tumultuous history of one of the most important places in the Middle East. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Damascus like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts of the insurrections*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading Even as the young United States successfully secured its independence, the new nation was beset by problems. The drafters of the Articles of Confederation had deliberately avoided giving the national legislature the power to tax, because Parliament had so abused that authority against the colonies, but this proved to be a severe limitation on the national government. Besides hampering the Continental Army, the inability of the national government to raise revenue made foreign policy difficult. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress was also completely unable to pay any of the debts it incurred to foreign powers during the Revolutionary War. Though allied powers had lent to the American government on favorable terms and no repayment was expected until the end of hostilities, the hope of ever paying national debts without a national government that could tax was slim. In particular, the prospect of the new nation defaulting on its loans from France led to the end of the Articles of Confederation. To top it all off, the Articles of Confederation also had no judiciary or executive branch. Therefore, laws passed by the Congress could not be enforced by the national government: the enforcement of laws was left to the mercy of the states. Likewise, there was no national judiciary to decide disputes over national law. The series of riots known collectively as Shays' Rebellion began during the earliest years of American independence and were led by men who were, by their very nature, rebels. Unlike most countries in the world, 18th century America was made up of people who believed in change, and who were willing to leave their homelands and strike out for the unknown to find it. The men who had just years earlier participated in the American Revolution were not afraid to break down a government they did not like; indeed, many of them reveled in it. When Massachusetts enacted laws that Shays and others didn't like, the rebels had no qualms about taking up arms, and while the rebellion was eventually put down, changes were made to prevent similar problems in the future. Out of this came peace, order, and more freedom. As Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton was looking for ways to shore up the young nation's finances and pay off the debts incurred by the Revolution. At the same time, he believed in strengthening the federal government vis- -vis the states, which would eventually make him a leader of the Federalist party but also compel him to push for a tax on distillers of alcohol, many of whom took their excess corn and grain crops and produced liquors. Ironically, Hamilton came up with the idea of this tax to avoid more direct forms of taxation, and because he didn't think it would be difficult to collect. What Hamilton didn't consider was just how ubiquitous the production of whiskey and other liquors were on the frontier, where they were often used as a form of currency itself. In addition to being upset at this new tax, Westerners believed it was disproportionately aimed at them because Americans still residing on the East Coast weren't as reliant on the production of whiskey. In 1794, violence actually broke out, and with the tax opponents numbering in the thousands, President Washington himself felt compelled to raise a militia force and personally lead it to deal with the rebels, the only time an American president actually led soldiers in the field. Ultimately, no pitched battle took place once the militia was marched into western Pennsylvania, but dozens were arrested and tried for treason in the wake of the episode.

*Includes pictures *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading *Includes a table of contents "When I am dead and opened, you shall find Calais' lying in my heart." - Mary I Queen Mary I ruled England and its conquered territories in Wales and Ireland for only five years, from 1553 to 1558, yet she has been remembered for nearly 500 years as Bloody Mary, the Catholic oppressor of a Protestant country. The truth, as usual, is more complicated than the myth. The oldest surviving child of King Henry VIII, she grew up in an era of religious and political turmoil, both in England and abroad, and though united in its Christianity, the continent was divided in how it approached that faith. A growing wave of protest and dissent had been met with brutal suppression in the 15th century, only to emerge like a phoenix from the flames in the form of Protestantism. With religious faith and political practice deeply intertwined, countries were being torn apart in a growing conflict between Catholics and Protestants. Mary's life was shaped by her experience of this, and by the twisted family politics of her father, Henry VIII. Henry VIII's lone mail heir, his young son Edward, was a strong Protestant but a sickly teen, and as it became clear he would not survive to adulthood, Edward did not want his crown to pass to Mary, a zealous Catholic whose brutal reign would include 280 "heretics" being burned at the stake during the "Marian Persecutions". However, Edward could see no constitutional, or indeed non-arbitrary, way to pass over Mary and instead choose the younger sister, Elizabeth. Hence, in his typical schoolboy penmanship, Edward's will attempted to override the Succession to the Crown Act 1543 (advocated by his father and passed by Parliament), bar both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declare as his heir Lady Jane Grey, who was the granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary. Lady Jane was proclaimed queen by the Privy Council, possibly under duress, but her support soon waned after her own close blood relations distanced themselves from her, and she was deposed after just over a week. Given this background, it is hardly surprising then that her reign epitomized an extreme reaction against these upheavals. Mary's behavior was rightly viewed with fear and anger by many but in hindsight, it is hard not to pity the woman who took these terrible steps. Emotionally betrayed by her father, her husband and even her own body, Mary's life is one of the great tragedies of the English crown. It also hasn't helped Mary's legacy that she was succeeded by one of England's greatest monarchs, her younger sister Elizabeth. Elizabeth I was the last Tudor sovereign, and she would improve upon her predecessors' successes and mitigate their failures. In the process, she would lend her name to the Elizabethan Age and set Great Britain on its future imperial course. Bloody Mary: The Life and Legacy of England's Most Notorious Queen traces the life of Mary and the history of her short reign. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Bloody Mary like never before, in no time at all.