Charles River

*Includes pictures*Includes excerpts of contemporary accounts*Includes a bibliography for further readingAt the start of the 1840s, the Oregon Country had no political boundaries or effective government. The only administrative organization in the territory was the Hudson's Bay Company, which applied only to British subjects, and aside from natives, the region was populated by a handful of independent traders, hunters, and prospectors, as well as those employed in the various company depots. The first to begin showing up in large numbers were missionaries. The native populations were by then diminished by disease and dispirited, which meant they were more receptive to missionary aid and the Christian message. Christianity, of course, was not entirely unknown among the indigenous populations, given that marriages between white men and Indian women created a hybrid of "folk" Christianity that was commonly observed among the Indians. The first wave of missionaries represented the American Methodists, arriving in or around 1834, followed a year or two later by a second series of arrivals, sponsored this time by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). The ABCFM was an ecumenical organization founded to promote the general outreach of the Presbyterian and Dutch Reform churches in the United States. Roman Catholics arrived around 1830, bringing missionaries mostly from Canada and Europe. Most wives and children remained in the East while men rolled the dice to seek fortunes in the Pacific region. However, religious movements committed to denominational migrations eventually found their way into the western plains through faintly-established routes, leading to the eventual settling of Utah. Before such western societies took root, the Pacific Northwest remained a dark void in the agendas of missionary organizations. Most were of the general mind that to convert the Nez Perc and Cayuse tribes of the Columbia River Plateau to Christianity was a hopeless venture. However, a few aspiring Protestant missionaries persisted in the belief that conversion of the unknown residents of modern-day Washington State and Oregon could be accomplished. Eventually, they received their opportunity to try, but no sponsoring organization would permit either an unmarried man or woman to attempt the journey or the project. Romanism, with its abstinent clergy, had captured much of southern California through its Mexican roots, and in a competitive framework, time was of the essence in the north. Through a fevered race against the Papacy to secure new western territory, Narcissa Prentiss Whitman became the first white women to cross the Rocky Mountains, and to settle in what is today the Walla Walla Valley of southeastern Washington State. A teacher and missionary, she accomplished the journey with her likeminded husband, Dr. Marcus Whitman. Their history-making tenure in the northwestern wilderness caused them to become one of the most well-known couples of the 19th century, and their story was soon known to the entire nation. Narcissa Whitman: The Life and Legacy of the Missionary Killed by Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest profiles the woman at the center of one of the West's most notorious events. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Narcissa Whitman like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes a bibliography for further readingIn the 18th century, Italy was still divided into smaller states, but differently than during medieval times when the political entities were independent and were flourishing economic and cultural centers almost unrivaled in Europe. During the 18th century, all of them were submitted, in one way or another, to one of the greater hegemonic powers. This process of conquest and submission began during the early 16th century, when France was called on by the Duke Milan to intervene in his favor and from there never stopped. Starting from the northwest, the kingdom of Sardinia was controlling the alpine western area and the island from which it took its name and ruled by the Savoy family. The kingdom of Sardinia was the youngest political entity in Italy and, possibly because of that, the strongest and most independent. Milan was found dominating part of the central plane, Venice was in control of the east, and Genova was dominating the coastal area south of the kingdom of Sardinia. Central Italy was ruled by the Duchy of Tuscany and the Papal States, while the south was united under the kingdom of Sicily. While the kingdom of Sardinia and the republic of Venice could be considered independent, Milan was submitted to Austrian direct authority through vassalage. The Duchy of Tuscany was part of their sphere of influence as a vassal state, given as a fiefdom to the Empress Maria of Habsburg's husband. Finally, the southern state, the kingdom of Sicily, was historically a Spanish domain. In 1847, the Austrian Chancellor Klement von Metternich referred to Italy as merely a "geographical expression," and to some extent, he was not far off the mark. The inhabitants did not speak Italian; only a literate few wrote in the Italian of Dante and of Machiavelli, and a mere estimated two and a half percent spoke the language. The rest spoke their own regional dialects, which were so distinct from one another as to be incomprehensible from town to town. Similarly, most future Italian citizens knew nothing of the history of the peninsula, but instead learned of their own local traditions and histories. The events of 1848-1849 began to pull the peninsula together, however. In January 1848, Sicily had a major revolution, which provoked widespread uprisings and riots, after which the kingdoms of Sardinia, the Two Sicilies, the Papal States and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany all were granted constitutions. In February, the Pope fled Rome and a three-month long Republic was declared, headed by Giuseppe Mazzini. In March, a revolution in Venice led to the declaration of a republic. In April, Milan also rebelled and became a republic. Soon, the Austrian government clamped down again on the peninsula with such intensity that not even the most optimistic would have been able to fathom the nationalist Risorgimento movement would unify Italy a little more than a decade later. The Italian state may have come together thanks to ideals, but the success of the Second Italian War of Independence owed a lot of its success to chance, foreign intervention, and the wheeling and dealing of a few powerful men. Its story is long and complex, and the ultimate unification of Italy as it's recognized today would require no less than four wars. Nonetheless, despite its difficult birthing process and rocky start, the Italian state has survived over 150 years, and it even managed to remain united in the aftermath of World War II, escaping the fate of Nazi Germany. The Unification of Italy: The History of the Risorgimento and the Conflicts that Unified the Italian Nation chronicles the turbulent events and wars that unified Italy, and the struggle to maintain the new nation. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Italian unification like never before.

"Pancho Villa", susurr la gente a principios del siglo XX, "puede marchar 100 millas sin parar, vivir 100 d as sin comer, pasar 100 noches sin dormir y matar a 100 hombres sin remordimientos". La leyenda de Francisco Villa est llena de hero smo, tragedia y romance. Es la historia de un pobre campesino que se convirti en un bandido por necesidad, despu s de vengar una injusticia contra su familia; un genio militar que vol de un gobierno opresivo para liderar el ej rcito revolucionario m s grande en la historia de su pa s, y derrot a la dictadura para convertirse en el liberador de M xico, solo para caer nuevamente en desgracia cuando sus tropas lo abandonaron o fueron masacrados por el enemigo. Pancho Villa y su caballer a, los mexicanos se alan con cierta cantidad de orgullo, invadieron los Estados Unidos y, aunque llegaron e intentaron capturarlo, nunca lo encontraron. Esta es, al menos, la versi n que la mayor a de ellos conoce, pero ciertamente no es la misma que en sus libros de texto. La historia de Francisco Villa evit la censura oficial de generaci n en generaci n, como las hojas que navegan a toda velocidad en la superficie de un arroyo. Pero la reconstrucci n hist rica est llena de matices. Era un luchador por la libertad, o un bandido? Era un Robin Hood mexicano, o un ladr n y un asesino? Estaba presente cuando sus tropas invadieron el territorio de los Estados Unidos? Fue el avance de sus famosos "Dorados" (los "dorados", el nombre de sus tropas) el motivo de alegr a o terror entre la gente que pasaba por el campo hacia la Ciudad de M xico? La personalidad de Pancho Villa ha sido controvertida desde el comienzo de su carrera como General del ej rcito revolucionario. Hace poco m s de 100 a os, un campesino mexicano llamado Emiliano Zapata reuni un ej rcito rural de las plantaciones y aldeas del sur de M xico, tom las tierras de las haciendas y comenz a distribuirlas entre los campesinos de Anenecuilco, su ciudad natal, en el estado. de morelos. Indignado e impaciente por la incesante indigencia de los pueblos ind genas a manos de los terratenientes, hab a decidido hacerse cargo de la justicia. Su bandera era Libertad y Justicia, los opuestos exactos de las dos cargas que hab an tiranizado a la poblaci n rural: el trabajo en condiciones de semi-esclavitud y la inmensa desigualdad. Zapata, quien en pocos a os reuni a un ej rcito popular de 25,000, fue un caso nico en la historia de M xico. El pasado de su pa s consist a en generales oportunistas que se rebelaban contra el gobierno que buscaba no hacer justicia, sino tomar el poder. A la inversa, Zapata no estaba interesado en la pol tica ni en los juegos de poder, excepto en su forma m s pr ctica e inmediata: distribuir la tierra entre los campesinos; para permitirles trabajar en paz; Y defender sus ganancias por la fuerza de las armas. Por lo tanto, era inevitable que en su tiempo, se lo viera como una amenaza, alguien a quien deshacerse para regresar a la paz y al orden. Casi un siglo despu s de su muerte, Zapata sigue siendo una figura opaca. Llamarse zapatista en M xico puede poner a una persona en problemas, sin embargo, lider una de las rebeliones campesinas m s estudiadas por los estudiosos. Los historiadores han producido biograf as que lo describen como un h roe, como John Womack en la d cada de 1960, y la de su sucesor y ayudante m s cercano, Gildardo Maga a, quien escribi una poco despu s de la muerte de Zapata. Libros m s meticulosos han aparecido en el pasado reciente, como el de Samuel Brunk, quien reconoce que la prensa puede haber exagerado las haza as de Zapata, pero no completamente.

*Includes pictures*Includes excerpts of contemporary accounts*Includes a bibliography for further readingAt the start of the 1840s, the Oregon Country had no political boundaries or effective government. The only administrative organization in the territory was the Hudson's Bay Company, which applied only to British subjects, and aside from natives, the region was populated by a handful of independent traders, hunters, and prospectors, as well as those employed in the various company depots. The first to begin showing up in large numbers were missionaries. The native populations were by then diminished by disease and dispirited, which meant they were more receptive to missionary aid and the Christian message. Christianity, of course, was not entirely unknown among the indigenous populations, given that marriages between white men and Indian women created a hybrid of "folk" Christianity that was commonly observed among the Indians. The first wave of missionaries represented the American Methodists, arriving in or around 1834, followed a year or two later by a second series of arrivals, sponsored this time by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). The ABCFM was an ecumenical organization founded to promote the general outreach of the Presbyterian and Dutch Reform churches in the United States. Roman Catholics arrived around 1830, bringing missionaries mostly from Canada and Europe. Most wives and children remained in the East while men rolled the dice to seek fortunes in the Pacific region. However, religious movements committed to denominational migrations eventually found their way into the western plains through faintly-established routes, leading to the eventual settling of Utah. Before such western societies took root, the Pacific Northwest remained a dark void in the agendas of missionary organizations. Most were of the general mind that to convert the Nez Perc and Cayuse tribes of the Columbia River Plateau to Christianity was a hopeless venture. However, a few aspiring Protestant missionaries persisted in the belief that conversion of the unknown residents of modern-day Washington State and Oregon could be accomplished. Eventually, they received their opportunity to try, but no sponsoring organization would permit either an unmarried man or woman to attempt the journey or the project. Romanism, with its abstinent clergy, had captured much of southern California through its Mexican roots, and in a competitive framework, time was of the essence in the north. Through a fevered race against the Papacy to secure new western territory, Narcissa Prentiss Whitman became the first white women to cross the Rocky Mountains, and to settle in what is today the Walla Walla Valley of southeastern Washington State. A teacher and missionary, she accomplished the journey with her likeminded husband, Dr. Marcus Whitman. Their history-making tenure in the northwestern wilderness caused them to become one of the most well-known couples of the 19th century, and their story was soon known to the entire nation. Narcissa Whitman: The Life and Legacy of the Missionary Killed by Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest profiles the woman at the center of one of the West's most notorious events. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Narcissa Whitman like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes a bibliography for further readingIt is hard to find an island on the map more central than Sicily. Located at the crossroads between Europe and Africa, and between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, Sicily has rarely been governed as an independent, unified state. Nonetheless, the island has always occupied a front-row seat to some of the most important events in history, and nowhere is this more obvious than during antiquity. After the Punic Wars, Sicily would remain a Roman domain until the end of antiquity, and affairs on the island dramatically affected the Romans at home. The First Servile War (135-132 BCE) and Second Servile War (104-100 BCE) both took place in Sicily, and they were perhaps the largest (and temporarily successful) slave revolts in antiquity, demonstrating a great unease in the early stages of Roman imperialism. In 70 BCE, the Roman orator and statesman Cicero gave a speech against Verres, the corrupt governor of the island, and over 2,000 years later it still provides an invaluable glimpse into the way things were run in Sicily and the Roman Republic as a whole. Although the conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE would strip Sicily of its central role as Rome's main supplier of grain, the island would remain an important part of the Roman Empire for about 500 more years. Sicily would only become independent again after the fall of the Western Roman Empire to barbarian tribes in the late 5th century CE, which ushered in the beginning of the Middle Ages. Over 1500 years later, the largest island of the Mediterranean remains a complicated place with a fraught relationship to the Italian mainland. Separated by only the narrow Strait of Messina, Sicily feels like a different country in many ways, and the differences between Sicilians and Italians are much vaster than the tiny geographical separating them might intimate. For example, the linguistic differences between the two are substantial, as Sicilian is practically its own language, rather than just a dialect. It differs from Italian most apparently insofar as the normal final "o" of masculine nouns is replaced by a "u," but beyond that difference, there are lengthy, five syllable words that a standard Italian tongue tends to trip over. In fact, most Italians have difficulty understanding Sicilian if they can comprehend any of it at all. There is also an ethnic difference between Sicilians and Italians. Most notably, many Sicilians have bright red hair and light eyes, which is usually thought to be a result of the Norman invasions, although today some historians believe it is because of the strong presence of the British during the Napoleonic Wars, as well as the Anglo-American occupation of Italy during World War II. Even Sicilian cuisine varies from the Italian mainland - Sicily is celebrated for having 72 different kinds of bread, and Sicilians often eat ice cream (gelato) for breakfast. However diverse Sicily might be, it is also paradoxically considered to be an emblem of Italy itself, a paradox it shares with Naples. No writer put it more aptly than the great Romantic poet Goethe. In an April 13, 1787 letter from Palermo, published in Journey to Italy, Goethe made the following declaration: "To have seen Italy without having seen Sicily is not to have seen Italy at all, for Sicily is the clue to everything." As Goethe's words suggest, Sicily is unquestionably unique thanks to its turbulent and rich history, but it shares the same qualities as the Italian nation overall, from its beautiful scenery, delicious cuisine, dazzling sunshine, and unparalleled cultural production to its problems with law and order, and its seeming impenetrability to outside visitors. Through it all, Sicily has been a true cultural melting pot, one that is responsible for some of the greatest contributions to Western culture.

Em termos de geopol tica, talvez o evento mais marcante da Idade M dia tenha sido o cerco otomano de Constantinopla em 1453. A cidade tinha sido uma capital imperial j no s culo IV, quando Constantino, o Grande, mudou o centro de poder dos romanos. Imp rio l , estabelecendo efetivamente duas metades quase igualmente poderosas do maior imp rio da antiguidade. Constantinopla continuaria a servir como a capital do Imp rio Bizantino, mesmo depois que a metade ocidental do Imp rio Romano entrou em colapso no final do s culo quinto. Naturalmente, o Imp rio Otomano tamb m usaria Constantinopla como a capital de seu imp rio ap s a conquista do Imp rio Bizantino, e gra as sua localiza o estrat gica, foi um centro comercial durante anos e continua sendo um hoje sob o nome turco de Istambul. O fim do Imp rio Bizantino teve um efeito profundo n o apenas no Oriente M dio, mas tamb m na Europa. Constantinopla tinha desempenhado um papel crucial nas Cruzadas, e a queda dos bizantinos significava que os otomanos agora compartilhavam uma fronteira com a Europa. O imp rio isl mico era visto como uma amea a pelo continente predominantemente crist o a oeste, e levou pouco tempo para diferentes na es europ ias come arem a colidir com os poderosos turcos. Na verdade, os otomanos entrariam em choque com russos, austr acos, venezianos, poloneses e outros antes de entrar em colapso como resultado da Primeira Guerra Mundial, quando faziam parte das pot ncias centrais. Ao estudar a queda do Imp rio Otomano, os historiadores argumentaram sobre o ponto de ruptura que viu um poder global l der lentamente se tornar um imp rio decadente. A fracassada batalha de Viena em 1683 certamente um importante ponto de virada para o imp rio em expans o; a derrota do gr o-vizir Kara Mustafa Pasha nas m os de uma coaliz o liderada pela dinastia austr aca dos Habsburgos, o Sacro Imp rio Romano-Germ nico e a comunidade polaco-lituana marcou o fim do expansionismo otomano. Foi tamb m o in cio de um lento decl nio durante o qual o Imp rio Otomano sofreu m ltiplas derrotas militares, viu-se atolado pela corrup o e teve de lidar com os cada vez mais rebeldes jan zaros (os soldados iniciais do Imp rio). Apesar de tudo, o Imp rio Otomano sobreviveria por mais de 200 anos, e no ltimo s culo de sua vida se esfor ou para reformar suas for as armadas, administra o e economia at que finalmente foi dissolvido. Anos antes do colapso final do Imp rio, o Tanzimat ("Reorganiza o"), um per odo de reformas violentas, levou a mudan as significativas no aparato militar do pa s, entre outros, o que certamente explica o sucesso inicial que o Imp rio Otomano conseguiu alcan ar seus rivais. Da mesma forma, a elabora o de uma nova Constitui o (Kan n-u Es s , lei b sica) em 1876, apesar de ter sido abatida pelo sult o Abdul Hamid II apenas dois anos depois, bem como seu renascimento pelo movimento "Jovens Turcos" em 1908, destaca o entendimento entre as elites otomanas de que a mudan a era necess ria e a cren a de que tal mudan a era poss vel. No geral, a hist ria da dissolu o pode ser definida como uma corrida entre a "doen a" crescente do Imp rio de um lado (a incapacidade do otomano para apaziguar e federar as v rias pessoas dentro de seu territ rio), e tentativas constantes de encontrar uma cura na forma de amplas reformas. Estas quest es s o muitas vezes apresentadas em conjunto, mas tendem a deslocar o foco para o exterior, para os v rios povos e as suas aspira es, juntamente com a crescente influ ncia da Europa sobre o destino do Imp rio Otomano. Para considerar tanto a "doen a" quanto a cura, necess rio separ -las, antes de passar para a causa direta da dissolu o do imp rio (Primeira Guerra Mundial) e sua heran a.

*Includes pictures*Includes a bibliography for further reading"When you tell someone your secret, your freedom is gone." - Fernando de RojasNone of these would hold a candle to the one birthed in the 15th century - the Spanish Inquisition. The notorious inquisition, the subject of multiple documentaries, movies, and other pop culture mediums, is an era darkly remembered for its oppression, barbarous torture, and religious tyranny. Serving as a backdrop for it all was a deadly disease, a man likened to Satan, and the tumultuous rise and fall of one of the most dreadful periods in European history. It was roughly around this time that a period of European exploration began. Trade was able to increase in Europe around the world due to more effective ships being introduced, and some of the improvements that were made to the ships were first introduced by the Chinese. The introduction of multiple mast ships and the sternpost rudders allowed the ships to travel quicker and be more maneuverable. By the start of the 15th century, ships were now much larger and able to support long distance travel with a minimum number of crew aboard. One explorer, Christopher Columbus, sought funding from the Portuguese to search for a passage to Asia by sailing westwards, but he was rejected. At this time in the late 15th century, Portugal's domination of the western African sea routes prompted the neighboring Crown of Castile and the Catholic monarchs in modern Spain to search for an alternative route to south and east Asia (termed Indies), so they provided Columbus with the funding he required. Ultimately, Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492, and Spanish settlements in the "West Indies" would eventually be established. New Spain was established in the aftermath of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, and as the most spectacular conquest and the richest province, New Spain quickly became the focus of Spanish America. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535, comprising a vast region of what is now the American Southwest, all of Mexico and Central America, the various Spanish held islands of the Caribbean, the "Spanish Main," and the Spanish Far East Empire (comprised mainly of the Philippines). The Viceroyalty of New Castile (later named the Viceroyalty of Peru) was established in 1542 and comprised all of Spain's South American territory, such as it was defined, excluding the Guianas. In 1610, the viceregency of New Granada was established with its capital in Cartagena, comprising the modern states of Columbia, Venezuela, a portion of Equator and Panama. In 1776, after much jostling with the southern frontier of Portuguese Brazil, the viceregency of Rio la Plata was formed, comprising Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, with Buenos Aires a sits capital. The Portuguese, of course, established their territory of Brazil with its capital and Rio de Janeiro. Not surprisingly, as the Catholic empires expanded across the globe, persecution would travel with them, and the horrors experienced by indigenous populations in these colonies rivaled anything heretics back in Europe faced. The Inquisition in the New World: The History and Legacy of the Inquisition after Spain and Portugal Colonized the Americas looks at how the Inquisitions came to be, the manner in which it was exported west, and how people were tortured and executed. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about the Inquisition in the New World like never before.

La Compa a Brit nica de las Indias Orientales fue uno de los jugadores cruciales en la formaci n del Imperio brit nico. Desde sus or genes como una empresa mercantil en puja por mantenerse a la par con sus competidores superiores -los holandeses, portugueses y espa oles-, a su per odo como la autoridad gobernante del subcontinente indio, hasta su ensoberbecida ca da, la Compa a de las Indias Orientales sirve como un lente a trav s del cual explorar las fuerzas sociales y econ micas de mayor escala que moldearon la formaci n de un Imperio brit nico global. Como una empresa privada que se convirti en un poder global no estatal por su propio m rito, la Compa a de las Indias Orientales tambi n sirve como una historia aleccionadora muy relevante para la situaci n pol tica y econ mica actual del mundo moderno. En su nivel m s b sico, la Compa a de las Indias Orientales jug un papel esencial en el desarrollo del comercio de larga distancia entre Inglaterra y Asia. El comercio en textiles, cer micas, t y otros bienes trajo consigo un enorme flujo de capital para la econom a brit nica. Esto no solo impuls la Revoluci n Industrial, sino que tambi n cre una demanda de productos de lujo entre la clase media. El crecimiento econ mico que hizo posible la Compa a fue un factor en el ascenso de Gran Breta a de un poder regional intermedio, a la naci n m s poderosa del planeta. Las ganancias generadas por la Compa a de las Indias Orientales tambi n fueron un incentivo para otras potencias europeas para seguir su ejemplo, lo que condujo a tres siglos de competencia colonialista alrededor del mundo. Este proceso abarc mucho m s que Asia y lleg a incluir al Medio Oriente y frica. M s all de su influencia m s obvia en reas como el comercio, la Compa a de las Indias Orientales tambi n sirvi como punto de contacto cultural entre gentes de los pa ses de Europa Occidental, Asia del Sur y Asia Oriental. Pr cticas brit nicas por excelencia, como tomar t , se hicieron posibles ampliamente gracias al comercio d la Compa a. Los productos y pr cticas culturales que viajaban de un continente a otro en nav os de la Compa a tambi n reconfiguraron la forma en que las sociedades en todo el mundo ve an asuntos de sexualidad, g nero, clases sociales y trabajo. En un nivel mucho m s oscuro, la Compa a de las Indias Orientales aliment la supremac a blanca y los conceptos europeos del Orientalismo (v ase Said, Orientalismo). Una de las principales razones por las que la Compa a de las Indias Orientales contin a siendo objeto de intenso inter s, es que las consecuencias de su influencia siguen siendo visibles en la India, Inglaterra y otras partes del mundo hoy en d a. Si bien la Corona inglesa finalmente reemplaz a la Compa a de las Indias Orientales como la autoridad gobernante en la India, los sistemas de producci n que sta hab a establecido permanecieron intactos. M s de medio siglo despu s de que la India se declarara independiente del Imperio brit nico, los efectos culturales y econ micos de este sistema colonial de producci n permanec an aparentes. Puede que las disparidades en riqueza y poder entre el Norte y el Sur globales no tengan su origen nicamente en la Compa a, pero sta jug un papel indisputable en los procesos imperiales. La Compa a de las Indias Orientales: La historia de la m s famosa empresa mercantil del Imperio brit nico examina la historia y el legado de una de las empresas comerciales m s notorias de la historia. En conjunto con fotograf as de personas, lugares y eventos importantes, aprender sobre la Compa a de las Indias Orientales como nunca antes, y en nada de tiempo.