Gustavo Vazquez Lozano

Mar a Magdalena es probablemente la figura m s c lebre del cristianismo popular, una mujer de nuestro tiempo, la que los medios de comunicaci n y las sensibilidades modernas pueden abrazar con mayor convicci n. La industria del entretenimiento como el cine, el teatro y la literatura de aeropuerto han tenido desde hace m s de cien a os una obsesi n con esta pelirroja, que lleg a su cl max en la primera d cada de este siglo y no parece que vaya a desvanecerse. Magdalena tiene todo para ser una super-estrella: joven y atractiva, liberada e inteligente, ejemplo de una espiritualidad m s libre, no sometida por una Iglesia controlada por hombres; en la mente de muchos, Magdalena encarna la oposici n a un sistema dominado por ancianos con sotana, lo "sagrado femenino", y por si fuera poco, tiene el mejor partido del mundo: el mism simo Jesucristo. Hasta aqu la imagen presentada por la cultura popular. Esta Magdalena afrancesada, de pelo suelto y brillante, que aparece en innumerables obras de artes medievales y modernas con un manto rojo, s mbolo de rebeld a y libertad (aunque en la Edad Media la intenci n era mostrarla como una mujer descarriada), es una creaci n de la Iglesia occidental, y m s recientemente de los medios masivos de comunicaci n. Es la Magdalena enterrada bajo siglos de luchas intertextuales, homil as condescendientes, leyendas medievales, novelas en busca de ventas y documentales para la televisi n por cable. Pero hubo una Mar a hist rica, la mujer llamada Miriam (su nombre hebreo) nacida en Galilea en tiempos del rey Herodes, y que muri , muy probablemente, en la actual Turqu a, venerada, cuando el cristianismo era solamente una variante del juda smo. Seguramente ella misma no se hubiera reconocido en nuestros retratos modernos o en la idea que el cristiano promedio ha tenido de ella desde hace 1500 a os. Si desde el siglo XVIII ha habido una b squeda del Jes s hist rico, el hombre real que camin en las colinas de Galilea y muri en una cruz en Jerusal n, hace falta tambi n una b squeda similar de la Magdalena hist rica; no por simple curiosidad; la figura en cuesti n no es menor: si hemos de dar cr dito a las fuentes del siglo I, Mar a de Magdala fue la primera cristiana de la historia, la primera en proclamar la tesis fundamental del cristianismo, la resurrecci n de Jes s. A pesar de la escasa informaci n confiable, hay algunos hechos que podemos saber con certeza sobre esta mujer; por ejemplo, que era una respetada y bien recordada seguidora de Jes s de Nazareth, una de las mujeres que apoyaron al movimiento del galileo desde su primera etapa. Algunos estudiosos de la Biblia creen ver evidencia interna en los evangelios que Magdalena era una mujer mayor de edad, muy probablemente bien acomodada, si no es que rica. "Por todos los indicios", opina E. P. Sanders en su libro The Historical Figure of Jesus, "ten a ochenta y seis a os, no ten a hijos, y ten a la tendencia a cuidar j venes desarraigados". Magdalena no s lo permaneci al lado de Jes s en su hora de mayor desgracia, la crucifixi n; tambi n tuvo una extra a experiencia junto a su tumba el domingo en la madrugada despu s de la Pascua. Los evangelios difieren en los detalles, pero no en el hecho de que le sucedi a ella.

*Includes pictures *Includes Zapata's quotes and descriptions of his life and career *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "It's better to die on your feet than to live on your knees." - Emiliano Zapata A little more than 100 years ago a Mexican peasant named Emiliano Zapata gathered a rural army from the plantations and villages of southern Mexico, seized the lands of the haciendas, and began to distribute them among the peasants of Anenecuilco, his hometown, in the state of Morelos. Outraged and impatient with the ceaseless destitution of the indigenous peoples at the hands of the landowners, he had decided to take justice in his hands. His flag was Liberty and Justice, the exact opposites of the two burdens that had tyrannized the rural population: work in semi-slavery conditions and immense inequality. Zapata, who in a few years assembled a popular army of 25,000, was a unique case in the history of Mexico. His country's past had consisted of opportunist generals revolting against the government seeking not to make justice, but to seize power. Conversely, Zapata was not interested in politics or power plays, except in their most practical and immediate form: to distribute land among the peasants; to allow them to work in peace; and to defend their gains by force of arms. Thus, it was only inevitable that in his time, he was seen as a menace, someone to get rid of in order to return to peace and order. Nearly a century after his death, Zapata remains an opaque figure. To call oneself a Zapatista in Mexico can get a person in trouble, yet he led one of the peasant rebellions most studied by scholars. Historians have produced biographies that portray him as a hero, such as John Womack in the 1960s, and that of his successor and closest aide, Gildardo Maga a, who wrote one shortly after Zapata's death. More meticulous books have appeared in recent past, like the one by Samuel Brunk, who concedes that the press may have exaggerated Zapata's exploits, but not completely. Despite the debates, the caudillo of the south continues to shine for his clarity of principles and intransigence, his refusal to compromise with the powerful, and his refusal to be a subordinate. He remained faithful to the death in his struggle for the oppressed, and he always despised power. On those grounds, although surely it was never his intention, Zapata became an international symbol, and as a result, many Mexicans have chosen to remember him as one of the noblest, most honest and bravest figures in their nation's history. Emiliano Zapata: The Life and Legacy of the Mexican Revolution's Iconic Leader chronicles the life of one of Mexico's most legendary figures. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Emiliano Zapata like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes Zapata's quotes and descriptions of his life and career *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "It's better to die on your feet than to live on your knees." - Emiliano Zapata A little more than 100 years ago a Mexican peasant named Emiliano Zapata gathered a rural army from the plantations and villages of southern Mexico, seized the lands of the haciendas, and began to distribute them among the peasants of Anenecuilco, his hometown, in the state of Morelos. Outraged and impatient with the ceaseless destitution of the indigenous peoples at the hands of the landowners, he had decided to take justice in his hands. His flag was Liberty and Justice, the exact opposites of the two burdens that had tyrannized the rural population: work in semi-slavery conditions and immense inequality. Zapata, who in a few years assembled a popular army of 25,000, was a unique case in the history of Mexico. His country's past had consisted of opportunist generals revolting against the government seeking not to make justice, but to seize power. Conversely, Zapata was not interested in politics or power plays, except in their most practical and immediate form: to distribute land among the peasants; to allow them to work in peace; and to defend their gains by force of arms. Thus, it was only inevitable that in his time, he was seen as a menace, someone to get rid of in order to return to peace and order. Nearly a century after his death, Zapata remains an opaque figure. To call oneself a Zapatista in Mexico can get a person in trouble, yet he led one of the peasant rebellions most studied by scholars. Historians have produced biographies that portray him as a hero, such as John Womack in the 1960s, and that of his successor and closest aide, Gildardo Maga a, who wrote one shortly after Zapata's death. More meticulous books have appeared in recent past, like the one by Samuel Brunk, who concedes that the press may have exaggerated Zapata's exploits, but not completely. Despite the debates, the caudillo of the south continues to shine for his clarity of principles and intransigence, his refusal to compromise with the powerful, and his refusal to be a subordinate. He remained faithful to the death in his struggle for the oppressed, and he always despised power. On those grounds, although surely it was never his intention, Zapata became an international symbol, and as a result, many Mexicans have chosen to remember him as one of the noblest, most honest and bravest figures in their nation's history. Emiliano Zapata: The Life and Legacy of the Mexican Revolution's Iconic Leader chronicles the life of one of Mexico's most legendary figures. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Emiliano Zapata like never before, in no time at all.

Hace poco m s de cien a os un campesino mexicano llamado Emiliano Zapata reclut un ej rcito rural de las plantaciones y pueblos del sur de M xico, tom por la fuerza las tierras de los haciendas y comenz a repartirlas entre los habitantes de Anenecuilco, su pueblo natal en Morelos. Indignado y encolerizado por el despojo que los terratenientes hab an venido efectuando durante a os contra los pueblos ind genas, hab a decidido tomar la impartici n de la justicia en sus propias manos. Su bandera era la de Libertad y Justicia, exactos opuestos de los dos flagelos que azotaban a la clase campesina: trabajo en la semiesclavitud y tropel as sin fin. Emiliano Zapata, que en unos cuantos a os logr reunir un ej rcito popular de 25 mil hombres, era una caso nico en la historia de M xico: la historia de su pa s hab a sido la de generales oportunistas dando cuartelazos buscando no hacer justicia, sino adue arse del poder. A Zapata no le interesaba el poder ni la pol tica, excepto en su forma m s pr ctica e inmediata: repartir tierras, hacer que los campesinos pudieran cultivarlas en paz y defender esa conquista elemental con la fuerza de las armas. No es raro que en su tiempo se le haya visto como a una amenaza, a quien deb a liquidarse para poder recuperar la paz y el orden. Admirado en nuestros d as como s mbolo de la resistencia campesina y luchador social, en vida Zapata fue perseguido tenazmente, declarado como un forajido m s all de toda amnist a. Cuando pudieron, los sucesivos gobiernos no dudaron en aplicar toda la brutalidad posible contra los zapatistas y sus pueblos, incluyendo mujeres y ni os. Para la gente de la capital no eran m s que unos semi-b rbaros. Sin embargo, rodeado de algunos intelectuales de izquierda, socialistas y antiguos anarquistas, Zapata dio forma a la corriente ideol gicamente m s avanzada y progresista de la Revoluci n Mexicana. "Quiero morir siendo un esclavo de los principios, no de los hombres" y "La tierra es de quien la trabaja con sus manos" son frases que se le atribuyen, aunque l mismo no sab a escribir y ten a que dictar sus cartas. En este sentido, sus palabras eran m s peligrosas que las conquistas militares que su Ej rcito Liberador del Sur alcanz durante un breve periodo. Zapata era tan pernicioso para el gobierno que cuando finalmente lo embosc y asesin , se asegur de que los habitantes de la regi n se pusieran en fila para ver su cad ver. Aparte de sus soldados ind genas vestidos de manta, Zapata no tuvo aliados. Otros caudillos ganaron cierta respetabilidad, pero a l la sociedad de su tiempo lo vio como un obst culo para la pacificaci n del pa s en los mejor de los casos; en el peor de ellos, era el "Atila del Sur", un violador de mujeres alrededor del cual se tejieron historias descabelladas. Hubo una notable excepci n: Francisco Villa, el otro gran l der de la Revoluci n, quien vio en las ideas de Zapata lo que l quiz no pod a formular. Desde el inicio de la guerra civil, Villa y Zapata fueron el s mbolo de la Revoluci n Mexicana, h roes populares, mitos vivientes, las dos caras de una misma moneda, expresi n de la misma rabia. En otros sentidos, eran lados opuestos. Villa ven a del norte, Zapata del sur. Villa era impulsivo, carism tico, el consentido del cine norteamericano, buen diplom tico e inmensamente popular; Zapata era huidizo y hura o, sin dotes diplom ticas y m s bien temido por la gente fuera de los l mites de su estado. Raramente era visto, fotografiado o filmado; detestaba la ciudad y la pol tica, a la que consideraba un nido de traidores. Llegar a una entrevista con l requer a pasar muchos retenes y viajar por caminos inaccesibles en las monta as. Demostr un inter s casi exclusivo por su regi n, y se enfoc en un solo ideal, el de la tierra. A diferencia de Pancho Villa o Venustiano Carranza, no le interesaba un programa nacional que cobijara a todas las clases sociales, sino una

Se conoce como la Era de la Prohibici n en Estados Unidos al periodo que va de 1920 a 1933, pero sus antecedentes y legado son tan extensos, que sin duda el tema corre adherido a lo largo de toda la historia del pa s, desde sus primeros a os como naci n independiente hasta la actualidad. Durante trece a os se intent convertir por la fuerza a todo un pa s en una naci n de no bebedores; fue el reventar de un ola que se hab a ido formando lentamente hasta explotar en 1920, y una vez pasada, sus efectos continuaron sinti ndose durante el resto del siglo XX. Incluso hoy en d a, la prohibici n del alcohol en el pa s consagrado a la libertad sigue teniendo lecciones importantes que ense arnos. La 18a Enmienda que convirti la iniciativa en ley constitucional, y el Acta Volstead que pormenorizaba su aplicaci n, no surgieron de la nada; no fue una ocurrencia electoral ni una batalla r pida y sorpresiva de un grupo de inter s que tom al otro desprevenido. En realidad la Ley Seca fue el resultado de casi un siglo de adoctrinamiento y lucha entre dos posturas pol ticas y sobre todo morales: la de quienes apoyaban la Prohibici n, los llamados "secos", y quienes se opon an a ella, en parte por considerar que no era incumbencia del gobierno condicionar la libertad de la persona, los llamados "h medos". Los primeros cre an que la prohibici n de licores, bebidas embriagantes y salones (o cantinas) era una medida necesaria para erradicar los grandes males que ya eran parte de la vida de la naci n: esposos embriagados y violentos, accidentes laborales debido al alcoholismo, hogares destrozados, esposas maltratadas y patrimonio familiar echado a volar en un solo d a. Los h medos defend an una industria leg tima que brindaba empleos e impuestos; les preocupaban los grandes intereses econ micos que se ver an afectados; recordaban el respeto a la sacrosanta libertad individual y sobre todo, hac an notar lo extra o que era que el gobierno determinara lo que alguien pod a ingerir o no. Especialmente porque, desde el inicio, el alcohol hab a sido parte inseparable de la cultura norteamericana: desde los salones del Lejano Oeste, los campos de uva de los valles de California, las mesas de los hogares de todo el pa s, hasta las cantinas de las grandes ciudades donde la clase trabajadora se reun a para hablar sobre pol tica. Ello sin tomar en cuenta otros mbitos en los que la cultura del vino resultaba un elemento esencial: el desarrollo de las artes -sobre todo la m sica y la literatura-, la cohesi n social y la econom a.

Se conoce como la Era de la Prohibici n en Estados Unidos al periodo que va de 1920 a 1933, pero sus antecedentes y legado son tan extensos, que sin duda el tema corre adherido a lo largo de toda la historia del pa s, desde sus primeros a os como naci n independiente hasta la actualidad. Durante trece a os se intent convertir por la fuerza a todo un pa s en una naci n de no bebedores; fue el reventar de un ola que se hab a ido formando lentamente hasta explotar en 1920, y una vez pasada, sus efectos continuaron sinti ndose durante el resto del siglo XX. Incluso hoy en d a, la prohibici n del alcohol en el pa s consagrado a la libertad sigue teniendo lecciones importantes que ense arnos. La 18a Enmienda que convirti la iniciativa en ley constitucional, y el Acta Volstead que pormenorizaba su aplicaci n, no surgieron de la nada; no fue una ocurrencia electoral ni una batalla r pida y sorpresiva de un grupo de inter s que tom al otro desprevenido. En realidad la Ley Seca fue el resultado de casi un siglo de adoctrinamiento y lucha entre dos posturas pol ticas y sobre todo morales: la de quienes apoyaban la Prohibici n, los llamados "secos", y quienes se opon an a ella, en parte por considerar que no era incumbencia del gobierno condicionar la libertad de la persona, los llamados "h medos". Los primeros cre an que la prohibici n de licores, bebidas embriagantes y salones (o cantinas) era una medida necesaria para erradicar los grandes males que ya eran parte de la vida de la naci n: esposos embriagados y violentos, accidentes laborales debido al alcoholismo, hogares destrozados, esposas maltratadas y patrimonio familiar echado a volar en un solo d a. Los h medos defend an una industria leg tima que brindaba empleos e impuestos; les preocupaban los grandes intereses econ micos que se ver an afectados; recordaban el respeto a la sacrosanta libertad individual y sobre todo, hac an notar lo extra o que era que el gobierno determinara lo que alguien pod a ingerir o no. Especialmente porque, desde el inicio, el alcohol hab a sido parte inseparable de la cultura norteamericana: desde los salones del Lejano Oeste, los campos de uva de los valles de California, las mesas de los hogares de todo el pa s, hasta las cantinas de las grandes ciudades donde la clase trabajadora se reun a para hablar sobre pol tica. Ello sin tomar en cuenta otros mbitos en los que la cultura del vino resultaba un elemento esencial: el desarrollo de las artes -sobre todo la m sica y la literatura-, la cohesi n social y la econom a.

La frontera entre M xico y Estados se extiende a lo largo de poco m s de doscientos a os de historia y dos mil millas de terreno, equivalentes a 3,180 kil metros. Esta l nea creada por el hombre, protagonista de una complicada historia, se ha fortalecido y solidificado con el paso de los a os. Sus significados tambi n han cambiado. En un principio era una idea, el fin aproximado e inh spito de un vasto imperio espa ol y el inicio de la "tierra de nadie". Despu s fue un trazo en un papel, una raya porosa, sin barreras f sicas, que en tiempos de paz se convirti en sitio de intercambio y cooperaci n, y en pocas de conflicto en terreno de choque no s lo de dos pueblos distintos, sino del Norte y el Sur de la geopol tica internacional. Hace dos siglos la frontera de Estados Unidos y M xico estaba formada por vastos desiertos y regiones peligrosas donde nadie quer a vivir, una l nea vagamente definida y poco vigilada. Hoy, en la segunda d cada del siglo XXI, a pesar de estar situada en uno de los h bitats m s inclementes, es la m s transitada del mundo; un pa s en s mismo considerando el volumen de operaciones econ micas que se llevan a cabo en sus proximidades, sin mencionar que se trata de una de las regiones m s vigiladas del planeta, incluso una zona de "guerra de baja intensidad", como la han denominado algunos expertos. Habr a que considerar, tan s lo para comparar, la frontera entre B lgica y Holanda, donde el cruce puede realizarse simplemente yendo de un caf a otro, sin que nadie se d cuenta cu ndo se ha cambiado de pa s. O la de Polonia y Ucrania, cuya frontera abierta est formada por hermosas planicies verdes decoradas con figuras labradas en la tierra. C mo pas la de M xico y EE. UU. -en relativamente poco tiempo- de un desierto a una franja superpoblada, violenta, din mica, boyante, culturalmente din mica, por donde pasa toda clase de mercanc as, legales e ilegales, en ambas direcciones? Curiosamente, hubo un tiempo en que los dos pa ses ni siquiera eran vecinos. Francia estaba entre ambos, en posesi n del extenso terreno de la Louisiana, donde Napole n esperaba restablecer un imperio franc s en el continente. En esa poca M xico ten a el oficial pero artificioso nombre de Nueva Espa a -aunque ya desde el siglo XVI los atlas nombraban el territorio como "Am rica Mexicana"- y Estados Unidos era un pa s aproximadamente del tama o del actual Reino Unido e Irlanda combinados. Las convulsiones en Europa pronto pusieron lado a lado a los dos pa ses m s notables del continente, los que m s dieron de qu hablar en todo el siglo XIX. Pero as como los ciudadanos normales de ambos pa ses han descubierto a lo largo de la historia buenas oportunidades en la vecindad, tambi n los grupos criminales de ambos lados han explotado este potencial, ofreciendo y demandando bienes en un intercambio perverso que hace da o a las dos naciones. Esto es en parte lo que ha llevado a la radicalizaci n de las posturas, llegando a sugerirse, en 2015, la construcci n de un nuevo muro como el de Berl n, pero inmensamente mayor, separando ya no al Este y al Oeste, sino al Norte y al Sur. La historia de la frontera entre Estados Unidos y M xico est todav a escribi ndose. sta es, hasta 2017, la pel cula de esta frontera nica; no la m s grande del mundo (la de Canad es mayor), ni la que separa a los m s ricos de los m s pobres (lejos est de la situaci n entre Sud frica y Suazilandia, por ejemplo), pero s la m s peculiar porque ha sabido unir con eficacia lo que parec a imposible conciliar.

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "While nation-states have always desired boundaries, the significance and shape of those borders have changed over time." - Rachel St. JohnThe history of the border between Mexico and the United States extends alongside 200 years and 2,000 miles - the tortuous epic of a man-made line that has not only hardened and become more solid over time, but has changed meanings too. In the beginning, it was an idea - the approximate and inhospitable edge of the vast Spanish Empire and the beginning of no man's land. Then, it was a line on paper - a porous boundary with no physical barriers. In times of peace, it was a place of trade and cooperation; in times of conflict, it was the point where two different peoples clashed, as well as the meeting of the North and South of international geopolitics. Two centuries ago, the border was formed by vast deserts and dangerous regions in which nobody wanted to live - a vaguely defined and surveyed boundary. Today, in the second decade of the 21st century, despite being located in one of the most inclement habitats in the world, it is also the world's busiest. It functions like a country in itself considering the volume of economic operations carried out across the line, not to mention being one of the most monitored regions of the planet. Some experts have even called it a low-warfare zone. Consider, for comparison's sake, the border between Belgium and the Netherlands, where crossing means going from one pub to another, and it is hardly realized when one leaves one nation or the other. Or consider the open limits of Poland and Ukraine, which consists of beautiful green pastures decorated with all kinds of art. How did the border of Mexico and the United States transition from a wilderness to an overpopulated, violent, dynamic, buoyant, culturally dynamic land in such a relatively short time, where a plethora of legal and illegal goods cross in both directions? Curiously, there was a time when the two countries were not even neighbors. France was between them, possessing the vast land of the Louisiana territory, where Napoleon wanted to establish a French empire in the Americas. At that time, Mexico had the official but artificial name of "New Spain" - misleading, since atlases from the 16th century had already named it "America Mexicana"- and the United States was approximately the size of the present-day United Kingdom and Ireland combined. The disturbances in Europe soon put the two most conspicuous countries of the continent side by side, and these two North American nations garnered the world's attention in the 19th century. Certainly not everything has been bad in the relationship between the two nations. In fact, the border has developed its own traditions, history, and personality into one not entirely Mexican or entirely American. Timothy Brown, a scholar of the frontier and globalization, correctly points out that "to most Mexicans, their northern states, with half their nation's land but only one-fifth its people, seem too American, a bit alien, vaguely un-Mexican," and likewise, "to many Americans, their own Southwest sometimes seems similarly alien and terribly Hispanic." Thus, on numerous occasions, both countries have found along the line a way of helping each other for mutual benefit. By promoting the colonization of the far north from the late 19th to the early 20th century, President Porfirio D az helped the southern United States develop a thriving agricultural economy sustained by a Mexican labor force. The United States-Mexico Border: The Controversial History and Legacy of the Boundary between America and Mexico looks at the crucial boundary. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the border like never before.

La frontera entre M xico y Estados se extiende a lo largo de poco m s de doscientos a os de historia y dos mil millas de terreno, equivalentes a 3,180 kil metros. Esta l nea creada por el hombre, protagonista de una complicada historia, se ha fortalecido y solidificado con el paso de los a os. Sus significados tambi n han cambiado. En un principio era una idea, el fin aproximado e inh spito de un vasto imperio espa ol y el inicio de la "tierra de nadie". Despu s fue un trazo en un papel, una raya porosa, sin barreras f sicas, que en tiempos de paz se convirti en sitio de intercambio y cooperaci n, y en pocas de conflicto en terreno de choque no s lo de dos pueblos distintos, sino del Norte y el Sur de la geopol tica internacional. Hace dos siglos la frontera de Estados Unidos y M xico estaba formada por vastos desiertos y regiones peligrosas donde nadie quer a vivir, una l nea vagamente definida y poco vigilada. Hoy, en la segunda d cada del siglo XXI, a pesar de estar situada en uno de los h bitats m s inclementes, es la m s transitada del mundo; un pa s en s mismo considerando el volumen de operaciones econ micas que se llevan a cabo en sus proximidades, sin mencionar que se trata de una de las regiones m s vigiladas del planeta, incluso una zona de "guerra de baja intensidad", como la han denominado algunos expertos. Habr a que considerar, tan s lo para comparar, la frontera entre B lgica y Holanda, donde el cruce puede realizarse simplemente yendo de un caf a otro, sin que nadie se d cuenta cu ndo se ha cambiado de pa s. O la de Polonia y Ucrania, cuya frontera abierta est formada por hermosas planicies verdes decoradas con figuras labradas en la tierra. C mo pas la de M xico y EE. UU. -en relativamente poco tiempo- de un desierto a una franja superpoblada, violenta, din mica, boyante, culturalmente din mica, por donde pasa toda clase de mercanc as, legales e ilegales, en ambas direcciones? Curiosamente, hubo un tiempo en que los dos pa ses ni siquiera eran vecinos. Francia estaba entre ambos, en posesi n del extenso terreno de la Louisiana, donde Napole n esperaba restablecer un imperio franc s en el continente. En esa poca M xico ten a el oficial pero artificioso nombre de Nueva Espa a -aunque ya desde el siglo XVI los atlas nombraban el territorio como "Am rica Mexicana"- y Estados Unidos era un pa s aproximadamente del tama o del actual Reino Unido e Irlanda combinados. Las convulsiones en Europa pronto pusieron lado a lado a los dos pa ses m s notables del continente, los que m s dieron de qu hablar en todo el siglo XIX. Pero as como los ciudadanos normales de ambos pa ses han descubierto a lo largo de la historia buenas oportunidades en la vecindad, tambi n los grupos criminales de ambos lados han explotado este potencial, ofreciendo y demandando bienes en un intercambio perverso que hace da o a las dos naciones. Esto es en parte lo que ha llevado a la radicalizaci n de las posturas, llegando a sugerirse, en 2015, la construcci n de un nuevo muro como el de Berl n, pero inmensamente mayor, separando ya no al Este y al Oeste, sino al Norte y al Sur. La historia de la frontera entre Estados Unidos y M xico est todav a escribi ndose. sta es, hasta 2017, la pel cula de esta frontera nica; no la m s grande del mundo (la de Canad es mayor), ni la que separa a los m s ricos de los m s pobres (lejos est de la situaci n entre Sud frica y Suazilandia, por ejemplo), pero s la m s peculiar porque ha sabido unir con eficacia lo que parec a imposible conciliar.

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "While nation-states have always desired boundaries, the significance and shape of those borders have changed over time." - Rachel St. JohnThe history of the border between Mexico and the United States extends alongside 200 years and 2,000 miles - the tortuous epic of a man-made line that has not only hardened and become more solid over time, but has changed meanings too. In the beginning, it was an idea - the approximate and inhospitable edge of the vast Spanish Empire and the beginning of no man's land. Then, it was a line on paper - a porous boundary with no physical barriers. In times of peace, it was a place of trade and cooperation; in times of conflict, it was the point where two different peoples clashed, as well as the meeting of the North and South of international geopolitics. Two centuries ago, the border was formed by vast deserts and dangerous regions in which nobody wanted to live - a vaguely defined and surveyed boundary. Today, in the second decade of the 21st century, despite being located in one of the most inclement habitats in the world, it is also the world's busiest. It functions like a country in itself considering the volume of economic operations carried out across the line, not to mention being one of the most monitored regions of the planet. Some experts have even called it a low-warfare zone. Consider, for comparison's sake, the border between Belgium and the Netherlands, where crossing means going from one pub to another, and it is hardly realized when one leaves one nation or the other. Or consider the open limits of Poland and Ukraine, which consists of beautiful green pastures decorated with all kinds of art. How did the border of Mexico and the United States transition from a wilderness to an overpopulated, violent, dynamic, buoyant, culturally dynamic land in such a relatively short time, where a plethora of legal and illegal goods cross in both directions? Curiously, there was a time when the two countries were not even neighbors. France was between them, possessing the vast land of the Louisiana territory, where Napoleon wanted to establish a French empire in the Americas. At that time, Mexico had the official but artificial name of "New Spain" - misleading, since atlases from the 16th century had already named it "America Mexicana"- and the United States was approximately the size of the present-day United Kingdom and Ireland combined. The disturbances in Europe soon put the two most conspicuous countries of the continent side by side, and these two North American nations garnered the world's attention in the 19th century. Certainly not everything has been bad in the relationship between the two nations. In fact, the border has developed its own traditions, history, and personality into one not entirely Mexican or entirely American. Timothy Brown, a scholar of the frontier and globalization, correctly points out that "to most Mexicans, their northern states, with half their nation's land but only one-fifth its people, seem too American, a bit alien, vaguely un-Mexican," and likewise, "to many Americans, their own Southwest sometimes seems similarly alien and terribly Hispanic." Thus, on numerous occasions, both countries have found along the line a way of helping each other for mutual benefit. By promoting the colonization of the far north from the late 19th to the early 20th century, President Porfirio D az helped the southern United States develop a thriving agricultural economy sustained by a Mexican labor force. The United States-Mexico Border: The Controversial History and Legacy of the Boundary between America and Mexico looks at the crucial boundary. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the border like never before.

No era un hombre que poseyera una gran cultura, pero sab a como utilizar el sentimiento de su epoca, lo cual es una forma sutil de decir que era un avezado aventurero. Ten a aire presidencial. Le encantaba lucirse de cualquier forma posible. Santa Anna era "El aguila" - nombre que puso a su autobiograf a - en m s de un sentido: el guila es el animal que destaca en el centro de la bandera de Mexico, devorando una serpiente, s mbolo del enemigo que profana el suelo nacional. Pero mas veces de lo que el esperaba cayo en desgracia, sufrio la ingratitud de sus compatriotas y solo por suerte se salvo de ser linchado o fusilado: su fortuna fue, como en el poema del siglo XIII Carmina Burana, variable como la luna. Sin duda, Santa Anna merece un juicio m s objetivo que el de la historia oficial. Por sus pecados pago, en parte viviendo demasiado tiempo, hasta ser una figura prehistorica. Hubiera sido mejor para su reputacion de haber partido antes. Como pocas personas del continente americano, su vida es digna de ser le da. En ella hay de todo: gloria, tragedia, intriga, amor, destierro y olvido. Esta es la vida de Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, uno de los hombres mas extraordinarios e influyentes del siglo XIX, pero ante todo un enamorado de cierta doncella a la que siempre quiso seducir: Mexico.

*Includes pictures *Includes contemporary accounts and descriptions of the cult *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading European and American scholars are fascinated by her. She is exotic; they look at her with the romantic look of the anthropologist and the sociologist; she is Mexican, colorful, and third-worldly (not to mention that she is a fantastic reason to get funding from their universities). Many see in her, correctly, a prodigious syncretism, so common in the troubled history of Latin America. The Catholic hierarchy, the predominant religion in Mexico, is horrified; the church calls her a satanic cult figure, associated with organized crime. Similarly, governmental authorities watch cautiously, deny official recognition to her "churches," and destroy her solitary shrines in northern Mexico, in roads riddled with crime. However, among her followers -besides prisoners, drug traffickers and many well-meaning men and women seeking other spiritual alternatives- there are some working on the side of the law, especially soldiers and police officers. Enter La Santa Muerte, the "Holy Death", a skeletal figure dressed like a Catholic saint, whom her faithful raised to the altars without asking anyone for permission. From her followers, she gets not only candles, prayers and petitions, as any other saint; they also call her loving names that to the outside observer would seem to be a joke: beautiful, skinny, cute girl, little mother, and at the height of the confusion, "virgin". What then is the Santa Muerte movement? As a practice, it has borrowed extensively from Catholicism, Santeria and even New Age, depending on the leader of the moment and the region, from Central America to Chicago. In the variety most similar to Catholicism, people find images of the skeleton dressed in a green robe with stars and golden borders, with rays of light coming out of her head: a negative image of the Virgin of Guadalupe. "It's our little mother, our skinny, she always takes care of us," says an anonymous woman who refers to Santa Muerte in the same way Mexican Catholics refer to The Virgin. Although fleshless, Santa Muerte is, without a doubt, a female figure (in the Spanish language, "death" is a feminine noun). But the garments of the Virgin of Guadalupe are not the only thing that the "white girl" borrowed. In fact, one of the main features of this cult is its extraordinary elasticity. It will adapt to anything. Anyone can dogmatize. Everybody contributes according to his or her feelings and experiences. Young cholos (street punks) prefer a version more reminiscent of some Iron Maiden albums, and the elderly of the Tepito neighborhood, another more similar to those found at small town churches, with flowers in her hair, and a robe with embroidery. Therefore, for the casual observer watching the candles, the flowers, listening to the murmur of prayers and noticing the insistence on receiving miracles, Santa Muerte is like another Catholic saint, despite the fact the cult of the Holy Death is not only not approved by any Christian denomination but is not even tolerated. This is the story of Santa Muerte, the so-called cult of crisis, a red-hot combo of a kermesse (Mexican carnival), Catholicism and New Age; a hedonist practice but involving bodily sacrifice too. It is an expression of economic, psychological and social forces, bigger than perhaps any of her acolytes suspect. The Santa Muerte: The Origins, History, and Secrets of the Mexican Folk Saint looks at the folk saint and the manner in which her cult grew. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Santa Muerte like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes excerpts from the apocrypha *Includes a list of the apocrypha, online resources, and a bibliography for further reading Between 50 and 90 CE, the various writings that comprise the New Testament were written, including the Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of Paul, and other letters to more general communities of the early Church. But what is recognized as the 26 books of the New Testament today, in literally hundreds of English translations, actually took several more centuries to be determined as "canonical" by the Church. In fact, it was not until a synod in Rome in 382 that the Church in the West formally adopted a list of the canonical books of the New Testament. For the intervening three centuries, there was much discussion among different writers over the many manuscripts circulating among the early Christian communities. Many of the manuscripts were anonymously authored by members of early heretical groups of Christians who shaped supposedly inspired writings to provide support for their doctrinal positions. Many more had the veneer of inspired texts because they were attributed to one of the Twelve Apostles or Mary, the mother of Jesus; they claimed to offer details of Jesus' life not covered in depth in the Four Gospels (such as his infancy and childhood), or the activities of the named apostle, or doctrinal teachings. The process of determining the Canon of the New Testament was a long one. It involved numerous scholars directed by the teachings of the Church sifting through numerous manuscripts with various attributed authorships. The 29 that made it into the canon were those that passed muster in terms of apostolic authorship and conformity to orthodox Church teaching. Most of those that did not make it in failed on those two accounts. Others were not included because they were judged not to have been written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Whatever the reason they were excluded, the writings that comprise the New Testament Apocrypha, while not inspired Scripture, do show something of the context in which the early Church developed its doctrines and its writings. Even today, not every branch of the Christian church agrees on which writings should be regarded as "canonical" and which are "apocryphal", even though some apocryphal texts often have noticeable links with books regarded as "canonical". Regardless, the New Testament Apocrypha refers to texts written by early Christians that were not included in the Bible used by the main branches of Christianity today. These texts vary in subject matter, with some being accounts of Jesus, others being about the nature of God, and still others being accounts and teachings of Jesus' apostles. What makes them fascinating is not just the history behind why they are considered non-canonical, but what they tell us about the early Church and early Christianity. Moreover, they offer insight into what sources were used to write them, and whether they shared the same sources as the texts that comprise the Bible today. Given their historical and religious importance, there is still a fierce debate over the authenticity of many of these texts. The Apocryphal Gospels: The History of the New Testament Apocrypha Not Included in the Bible looks at some of the famous texts that were kept out of the Bible. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the apocryphal books like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes Santa Anna's quotes about his own life *Includes a bibliography for further reading "Texas, to be respected must be polite. Santa Anna living, can be of incalculable benefit to Texas; Santa Anna dead, would just be another dead Mexican." - Sam Houston The butcher of the Alamo and Goliad. The traitor who sold half of Mexico. The Napoleon of the West. Mr. Fifteen Nails. The Mother Country's seducer. Almost 150 years after his death, a lot of name-calling is still being directed towards Antonio L pez de Santa Anna, president of Mexico 11 times in the 19th century, and today, the vast majority of his compatriots consider him the greatest traitor in history. It was not like that in his day; actually, there had never been a more popular man in Mexico, or anyone more eulogized and essential than General Santa Anna. In life he was the most famous - and at intervals most infamous - Mexican general and politician. Justo Sierra, the eminent writer and historian who watched him when he was a child, wrote that the masses came to regard him as a Messiah: "The people had a vague confidence that he could do miracles." Sierra wrote that Santa Anna was "the indispensable man, the man for our times of crisis, our deus ex machina." The political factions that rose against him and sent him into exile, a couple of years later were knocking at his door begging him to come back when the nation was coming apart at its seams. Then Santa Anna returned to Mexico, and he seduced her, united the people, and formed armies out of thin air to fight the new threats to the motherland: Spain, France, and the United States. At the same time, just as there are men who embody all the nation s virtues - like Benito Ju rez in Mexico or Abraham Lincoln in the United States - the Mexicans have, according to their official history, a villain by decree, guilty of all the evils except maybe the earthquakes. The most serious accusation is that Santa Anna let go half of Mexico s territory to the United States. "Me? Selling half of Mexico?" says the General in Enrique Serna s brilliant novel, The Mother Country s Seducer. "For Christ s sake When will these childish Mexicans learn that if this ship sank, it was not the helmsman's fault only, but the laziness and ineptitude of the oarsmen? Like all human beings, I have committed mistakes, and some had dire consequences. But from there to the monstrosity they want to blame me for, there is an abyss." The general was not a man of much learning, but he knew how to use the sentiment of the time, which is merely a way of saying that he was a skillful adventurer. He had the air for the office and loved all forms of display. Santa Anna was "The Eagle" - the title of his autobiography - in more than one sense: the eagle is the animal that stands out in the center of the Mexican flag, devouring a snake, the symbol of the enemy that desecrates the national soil. But more often than not he fell in disgrace, suffered the ingratitude of his people, and only by sheer luck was saved several times from being shot. His fortune always was, as so eloquently put in the 13th century poem Carmina Burana, changeable like the moon. Santa Anna deserves a more objective judgment than that of official history. For his sins, he certainly paid, in part by living long past his time. It certainly would have been better for his reputation if he had gone sooner. But either way, his life story is more interesting than all but a select few, and it includes a little bit of everything, including glory, tragedy, intrigue, love, exile, and oblivion. Santa Anna: The Life and Legacy of the Legendary Mexican President and General looks at one of Mexico's most important figures. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Santa Anna like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes Villa's own quotes about his life and career *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading *Includes a table of contents "My sole ambition is to rid Mexico of the class that has oppressed her and given the people a chance to know what real liberty means. And if I could bring that about today by giving up my life, I would do it gladly." - Pancho Villa "Pancho Villa," people whispered at the beginning of the 20th century, "can march 100 miles without stopping, live 100 days without food, go 100 nights without sleep, and kill 100 men without remorse." The legend of Francisco Villa is full of heroism, tragedy and romance. It is the story of a poor farmer boy who became a bandit out of necessity, after avenging an injustice on his family; a military genius who flew from an oppressive government to lead the largest revolutionary army in his country's history, and defeated dictatorship to become Mexico s liberator, only to fall again in disgrace when his troops abandoned him or were massacred by the enemy. Pancho Villa and his cavalry, Mexicans point out with a certain amount of pride, invaded the United States, and although they came and tried to capture him, they never found him. This is, at least, the version that most of them know, but it's certainly not the same as in their textbooks. The story of Francisco Villa bypassed official censorship from generation to generation, like leaves sailing at full speed on the surface of a stream. But the historical reconstruction is full of nuances. Was he a freedom fighter, or a bandit? Was he a Mexican Robin Hood, or a thief and a murderer? Was he present when his troops invaded U. S. territory? Was the advance of his famous "Dorados" (the "golden ones," the name of his troops) the cause for joy, or terror among the people as they passed the countryside towards Mexico City? Pancho Villa s personality has been controversial since the very beginning of his career as a General of the revolutionary army. Many biographies have been written about him, the first of which dates back to only a few years after his death. Counting the number books who take one of those two sides-butcher or freedom fighter-would be impossible, but they would probably form two piles of equal size. Through them, readers can learn divergent tales about one of the most widely known Mexicans, both in his country and abroad. For many Mexicans, he is a hero. In schools, teachers still speak cautiously about him to new generations of children, who are amazed by the tough guy with hat and pistols. And the old, those who had heard about his exploits from their parents, declare that Villa himself will ride again through the mountains of Mexico, on the day when the poor can no longer stand and a new revolution explodes. As Octavio Paz eloquently put it, "The brutality and uncouthness of many of the revolutionary leaders has not prevented them from becoming popular myths. Villa still gallops through the north, in songs and ballads; Zapata dies at every popular fair. ... It is the Revolution, the magical word, the word that is going to change everything, that is going to bring us immense delight and a quick death." Pancho Villa: The Life and Legacy of the Famous Mexican Revolutionary chronicles the controversial life of one of Mexico's most legendary fighters. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Pancho Villa like never before, in no time at all.

Esta es la historia de la Santa Muerte, culto de crisis; remix de catolicismo, kermesse y New Age; un culto hedonista pero tambi n de sacrificio corporal; reflejo de fuerzas econ micas, psicol gicas y sociales m s amplias de lo que tal vez ninguno de sus ac litos sospecha.

*incluye fotos *incluye las cuentas de las batallas Aqu va una adivinanza. Qu parte de Estados Unidos ha estado bajo la soberan a de seis pa ses diferentes? La respuesta, por el t tulo de este libro, es obvia. "Texas es un estado mental, pero creo que es mucho m s que eso. Es una m stica que se aproxima a una religi n. A pesar de su enorme extensi n, variedad de climas y diferencias en el paisaje, Texas tiene una cohesi n interna quiz m s s lida que cualquier otra parte de la Uni n Americana", escribi John Steinbeck en Travels with Charley: In Search of America. No es raro que el texano promedio sienta un gran orgullo por el simple hecho de serlo, e incluso juegue con la noci n de que su estado podr a, y quiz deber a ser una gran naci n alg n d a. Terminada la colonizaci n europea en el continente, Texas dej de pertenecer a Espa a y Francia para formar parte del Imperio Mexicano; despu s fue un pa s independiente y actualmente es uno de los 50 estados de la Uni n Americana, aunque durante un breve periodo la rebelde Texas volvi a separarse para formar, junto con otros aliados, los Estados Confederados de Am rica. Decir que algo es "del tama o de Texas" expresa grandiosidad y abundancia, y sus habitantes ciertamente han mostrado la laboriosidad para hacer de esta parte de Norteam rica uno de los estados que mayormente contribuye al producto interno bruto de su pa s. Las historias sobre la revoluci n que en el siglo XIX la libr de la intolerancia, opresi n y crueldad mexicanas se cuenta lo mismo en las escuelas que en la astuta museograf a de las principales centros culturales del "Estado de la Estrella Solitaria". En particular la batalla del lamo, rodeada de leyendas y testimonios de hero smo, es un ejemplo de libro de texto de c mo se ve ah la conquista de la libertad, comparable a la batalla de Masada para los jud os. Las palabras "m rtires", por un lado, y "tiran a mexicana" por el otro, casi siempre est n presentes en los recuentos. Remember the Alamo es a la vez un slogan de auto-glorificaci n como de martirio. Pero sta es, desafortunadamente, una visi n pintada de rosa. Como en cada historia, todo depende del lado en que nos coloquemos y las historias de qui n estemos leyendo. La guerra de Texas ciertamente buscaba la libertad, pero no el ideal abstracto of "las masas cansadas, despojadas que anhelan respirar libres; los rechazados expulsados de lejanas costas". Era m s bien la libertad para ir comi ndose las tierras de un pa s d bil y mantener la esclavitud en sus campos de algod n, as como la ambici n de tierras baratas e inagotables recursos naturales. Texas no viv a bajo una tiran a, los colonos no hab an sido esclavizados por nadie -por el contrario, se les hab an regalado tierras y permitido todas las facilidades para prosperar-, ni el ej rcito mexicano era las fuerzas del mal cuyo nico objetivo era, en palabras de la poca, imponer "la barbarie y el despotismo (...) de la raza h brida hispanoamericana y la raza negra contra la civilizaci n" (Pacheco, 1997). Los colonos texanos, en su mayor parte familias pac ficas y trabajadoras, hicieron por a os lo que har a cualquier grupo humano en busca de mejores oportunidades teniendo ante s territorios deshabitados y no vigilados: entrar, asentarse en ellos, trabajarlos y defender lo logrado. Por su parte, M xico reaccion como lo hubiera hecho cualquier pa s que viera visto invadido su territorio por rebeldes extranjeros armados: expulsarlos o apaciguarlos. Sin embargo, durante la guerra de Texas y hasta la fecha, tiende a verse con actitud rom ntica el recuerdo de aquella rebeli n. La guerra de independencia que ah se llev a cabo fue el pre mbulo de otra m s extensa, destructiva y sangrienta: la guerra entre M xico y Estados Unidos en 1847. No es sta una historia de h roes ni de villanos.

EN LA MISMA SINTONIA, vidas en la radio: es una amplia compilaci n de historias y an cdotas de las personas que fueron pioneros en la radio.