Charles River

"Nachdem die K nigsherrschaft vom Himmel kam, war die K nigsherrschaft in Eridu." - Auszug aus dem ersten Absatz der sumerischen K nigsliste Man kann sehen, wie sich in der W stenlandschaft S diraks die berreste eines gro en Walls abzeichnen, die eine ungef hre Gr e von 1750 x 1750 Fu aufweisen und von etlichen kleineren W llen umgeben sind. Heute bekannt als Tell Abu Shahrain oder in der Antike als Eridu, bietet diese St tte einige der besten Beispiele f r die Obed Kultur und sie war eine der ersten st dtischen Zentren der Zivilisation im S den Mesopotamiens, wenn nicht sogar das erste. Viele ber hmte Geschichten entstammen den mythischen Landschaften im tiefen S den Irans. In der Literatur des antiken Sumer wurde Eridu als die Urstadt betrachtet, das erste Ballungszentrum, welches vermutlich schon lange vor der gro en Sintflut existierte, welche die menschliche Kultur laut Buch Genesis und anderen fr heren berlieferungen ausl schte. Es war so, dass sich die westlichen Entdecker erstmals im 19. Jahrhundert auf die Suche nach den Urspr ngen der L nder machten, welche die Bibel als Ursprung der Menschlichen Rasse bezeichnete. Dabei entdeckten sie, dass Eridu ein realer Ort war. Die erstaunliche St tte liegt etwa 8 Meilen s dwestlich der sumerischen Stadt Ur und die westlichen Arch ologen waren verwundert, wie eine so gro e Stadt wie diese in einer so gro en und wasserlosen W ste existieren konnte, als sie sie Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts erstmals ausgruben. Doch Eridu liegt am Rande der gro en Alluvial Ebene Sumers, einem verwilderten und wundersch nen Sumpfland, in dem der Tigris und der Euphrat aufeinandertreffen. Dies war der biblische "Garten Eden", eine alte Landschaft, die f r ihre Fruchtbarkeit bekannt war. F r viele Westl nder war die Geschichte Iraks vor 1991 nichtssagend, doch ironischerweise half sie, die Wichtigkeit und den Einfluss der Region auf die westliche Zivilisation hervorzuheben, als die Region im Krieg versank. Es war hier in der wilden Landschaft im S dirak, ehemals Sumer, wo die ersten Gesetze, Wissenschaften und St dte entstanden. Eridu ist f r die Erforschung der fr hesten Stadien der Zivilisation der Geschichte ein Ort von au ergew hnlicher Bedeutung. Es ist eines der besten Beispiele f r das kulturelle Fortbestehen in Mesopotamien von den fr hesten pr historischen Stadien, in denen sich Siedlungen entwickelten bis hin zu den sp teren Zeitaltern. Eridu hatte nicht etwa den besonderen Status als Residenz des Herrschergeschlechts, jedoch f r seinen religi sen Stellenwert. Es wurde eine Reihe von Tempeln errichtet, die dem Schutzgott der Stadt namens Enki gewidmet wurden. Jeder einzelne wurde auf den Ruinen des Vorg ngerbaus errichtet und repr sentiert die architektonischen, religi sen und sozialen Ver nderungen, die sich in Laufe ihrer Geschichte in der St tte ereignet haben. Eridu: Die Geschichte und das Verm chtnis der ltesten Stadt im antiken Mesopotamien beleuchtet die turbulente Geschichte einer der wichtigsten St dte der Antike. Zusammen mit Bildern, die wichtige Personen, Orte und Ereignisse darstellen, werden Sie Dinge erfahren, wie niemals zuvor.

Quando arque logos americanos descobriram uma cole o de tabuletas cuneiformes no Iraque, ao final do s culo XIX, eles se depararam com uma linguagem e um povo que, naquela poca, era pouco conhecido at mesmo pelos estudiosos mais instru dos da antiga Mesopot mia: os sum rios. As explora es e conquistas de outros povos mesopot micos, como os ass rios e babil nios, j eram conhecidas por um grande segmento da popula o atrav s do Antigo Testamento, e o campo nascente de estudos do Oriente Pr ximo havia revelado o enigma da l ngua acadiana, que era amplamente utilizada na regi o em tempos antigos; no entanto, a descoberta das tabuletas sum rias trouxe luz a exist ncia da cultura sum ria, a mais antiga de todas as culturas da Mesopot mia. Muito antes de Alexandria ser uma cidade, e antes mesmo de M nfis e Babil nia alcan arem grandeza, a antiga cidade mesopot mica de Ur era primordial entre as cidades do Oriente Pr ximo. Atualmente, a grandeza e influ ncia cultural de Ur t m sido esquecidas pela maioria das pessoas, parcialmente porque seus monumentos n o resistiram ao tempo da forma como os monumentos de outras culturas antigas o fizeram. Por exemplo, os monumentos do Egito foram feitos de pedra, ao passo em que os de Ur e da maioria das cidades da Mesopot mia foram feitos de tijolos de barro; como ser discutido neste artigo, tijolo de barro pode ser um material mais f cil de trabalhar do que pedra - por m, o mesmo tamb m decai mais rapidamente. O mesmo vale, de certa forma, para os documentos escritos que foram produzidos em Ur. O povo da Mesopot mia, do qual Ur fazia parte, empregava o sistema cuneiforme de escrita; uma vez que a mesma era quase sempre feita em tabuletas de argila, acad micos modernos t m de lidar com o lament vel problema de que muitas das tabuletas foram quebradas e tornaram-se ileg veis ao decorrer dos s culos. Apesar da natureza ef mera de seus monumentos e, em certa medida, de seus textos escritos, Ur provou ser uma inspira o para os sum rios que constru ram a cidade e tamb m para culturas e dinastias posteriores que habitaram a Mesopot mia. Um exame de fontes prim rias relacionadas a Ur, bem como escava es arqueol gicas feitas na cidade antiga, revelam que a mesma fora um baluarte cultural por milhares de anos. Ur surgiu como uma cidade de import ncia secund ria, mas rapidamente cresceu para tornar-se a cidade mais importante da Sum ria. Em seu auge, Ur foi o centro da grande dinastia que controlava diretamente a maior parte da Mesopot mia, atrav s de um ex rcito e burocracia bem administrados - al m disso, as reas que n o estavam sob seu controle direto foram influenciadas por diplomatas e ideias religiosas de Ur. O presente estudo tamb m revelar que Ur era uma cidade verdadeiramente resistente, pois sobrevivera queda dos sum rios, destrui o completa nas m os dos elamitas, e s ocupa es posteriores por diversos outros povos, que, mais recentemente, inclu ram Saddam Hussein. Ur inspirou a imagina o dos povos antigos, mas tamb m extasiou as mentes dos povos modernos, que trabalharam por mais de 150 anos para desvendar os mist rios da cidade. Verdadeiramente, quando se trata de importantes cidades antigas, Ur deveria ser contada entre as maiores. Ur: Hist ria e Legado da Antiga Capital Sum ria tra a a hist ria e o legado de uma das cidades mais influentes da Antiguidade. Junto a imagens de pessoas, lugares e eventos importantes, voc aprender sobre a hist ria de Ur como nunca antes, em nenhum outro tempo.

El espacio puede ser la frontera final, pero ninguna ha capturado la imaginaci n americana como el "Salvaje Oeste", que todav a evoca im genes de vaqueros polvorientos, forajidos, tiroteos, jugadores y peleas en el bar, m s de 100 a os despu s que el Oeste termin de ser conquistado. Idea fija en la cultura pop americana, el Oeste Americano del siglo XIX contin a siendo v vida y coloridamente retratado, no solo como un lugar sino tambi n como un estado de la mente. Incluso hoy en d a, quien viaje por el Oeste hallar muchos rastros de los viejos tiempos. Pueblos fantasmas todav a permanecen de pie en partes remotas del desierto y la pradera, el arte rupestre de los nativos americanos todav a relata sus leyendas silenciosas, y las viejas minas de los buscadores a n puntean las faldas de las monta as. Algunos de los top nimos como Bloody Basin ("Taz n Sangriento"), en Arizona y Soldier's Hill ("La Colina del Soldado"), en Nuevo M xico, tienen historias que contar. En noviembre de 2014, un afortunado arque logo en el Parque Nacional Great Basin, en Nevada, divis un viejo rifle recostado de un pino; el sol y el viento hab an envejecido la culata, hasta volverla tan gris como el tronco del rbol, casi invisible a los transe ntes. Cuando el arma fue examinada, result ser un rifle Winchester. El serial era todav a legible y los registros mostraron que hab a sido fabricado y despachado en 1882. Alg n buscador o cazador hab a apoyado el rifle en el rbol, hac a m s de un siglo, y nunca regres a buscarlo. Hab a estado recostado all desde entonces. Con la misma popularidad de la que gozan hoy la obras sobre el Oeste, el Salvaje Oeste captur la imaginaci n de la gente incluso en esos d as en los que realmente fue salvaje. Ya en el siglo XIX, su fama se extendi gracias a las novelas de diez centavos, diarios de viajeros, espect culos del Salvaje Oeste, y obras de teatro, y la gente se emocionaba con relatos de exploraciones y tiroteos. Naturalmente, en el proceso de establecer la frontera, la aventura arroj un n mero incontable de historias extra as, desde relatos de monstruos y minas perdidas, a ciudades ocultas y hombres regresando de la muerte. Era un vasto, e inexplorado pa s, y muchos misterios pod a esconder tanto en cordilleras sin cartografiar como en las aparentemente interminables llanuras. El Extra o y Salvaje Oeste: Leyendas e historias estramb ticas acerca de la Frontera, es una colecci n de relatos sobre la frontera americana que van de lo probable a lo francamente rid culo. Algunos son adaptaciones de viejos cuentos folcl ricos que los inmigrantes trajeron con ellos, o creaciones de ansiosos reporteros de prensa, pero muchos tienen de hecho alguna base. Junto con fotograf as y una bibliograf a, aprender de acerca del Extra o y Salvaje Oeste como nunca antes, y en poco tiempo.

Diferentes ramifica es da mesma religi o constituem mais uma exce o do que uma regra e tiveram um impacto profundo na hist ria. O cisma entre as Igrejas Ortodoxa e Cat lica influenciou as rela es entre na es por toda a Europa e, a intoler ncia religiosa baseada em diferentes f s crist s levou a persegui es e total viol ncia por todo o continente durante s culos. A Reforma Protestante separou ainda mais o Cristianismo e os resultados culminaram na incrivelmente destrutiva Guerra dos Trinta Anos no s culo XVII. Atualmente, a separa o religiosa mais importante entre Sunitas e Xiitas no seio do Isl o. Contrariamente a outras divis es de f - entre Judeus Conservadores e Ortodoxos ou Crist os Cat licos e Protestantes -, a separa o entre os Sunitas e Xiitas tem existido ao longo quase da pr pria f e, rapidamente emergiu de tens es criadas por crises pol ticas ap s a morte do profeta Maom . De certo modo, as diferentes formas do Isl o que existem agora, surgiram essencialmente de fa es pol ticas no seio da unidade de crentes mu ulmanos. Ao longo de muitos s culos, os Crist os t m praticamente conseguido viver ao lado dos seus correligiosos, mas a separa o entre Sunitas e Xiitas ainda t o pronunciada que muitos aderentes de cada ramifica o veem-se mutuamente com desprezo, se n o como ap statas ou n o crentes. A divis o religiosa por ventura a mais importante descontinuidade no turbulento M dio Oriente de hoje, com na es Sunitas como o Egito e Ar bia Saudita em desacordo com na es Xiitas como o Ir o. A n veis mais baixos, grupos n o-estatais como o Estado Isl mico e o Hezbollah est o a combaterem entre si de uma forma que atravessa fronteiras estatais, em lugares como o L bano, o Iraque e a S ria. Apesar de ser tecnicamente uma separa o na religi o, a divis o tem tido ramifica es substanciais e globais por d cadas e parece que n o h um fim vista. A Hist ria da Separa o entre Sunitas e Xiitas tra a as origens da separa o e os hist ricos esfor os da maior divis o no seio do Isl o. Juntamente com imagens de pessoas importantes, lugares e eventos, o leitor ir aprender acerca da hist ria dos Sunitas e Xiitas como nunca dantes, em muito pouco tempo.

*Includes pictures *Profiles important people and conspiracy theories *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading For decades, parodies featuring ominous, mysterious cults have been a favorite gag in pop culture. These fraternal brothers are often depicted in some type of underground lair, dressed in extravagant ceremonial robes with their faces hidden in their hoods, seated around a long table brimming with Gothic chalices, skulls, and glittering dark treasure. Flicks on the more morbid side might even show choppy, flashing imagery of blood, torture, and sacrifices. Like all art, creativity is sparked by a source of inspiration, and one of the most widely recognized muses of these kinds of scenes is none other than the Freemasons. This ancient society, descended from the ancient culture of stonemasonry, is said to possess the deepest, darkest, and most inexplicable truths of the universe. They are said to possess mystical powers like no other - maybe even magic. But does this stigma against the brotherhood have any merit, or are they simply just severely misunderstood? As many are aware, Freemasons have been around for many centuries. The Renaissance, which came into full bloom between the 14th and 16th centuries, saw a burst in creativity and advancement in an array of art forms throughout Europe. Stonemason guilds rode the changing tides; no longer did incoming apprentices have to be restricted by trade. A great portion of these new apprentices were artists and free thinkers, but still vowed to adhere to traditional stone-cutter culture. This new breed of masons separated from the orthodox "operative" masonry, and began to foster what became known as "speculative" masonry. Like most legends, the origins of Freemasonry are still disputed to this day. The earliest mention of the society traces back to The Halliwell Manuscript, or Regius Poem, which was supposedly authored sometime between the late 14th to the early 15th centuries. The manuscript, penned in exquisite Middle English and calligraphy, consisted of 64 pages and 794 lines of rhyme. It is considered the first of the time-honored Masonic manuscripts, and is generally accepted as the "truthful" history of the fraternity's beginnings. The poem in question begins with Euclid, a Greek mathematician from the 4th century BCE, remembered today as the "father of geometry." The math whiz was said to have incorporated geometric sciences into a new field he dubbed "masonry." With this new and refined brand of science, he traveled to Egypt, and imparted his wisdom to the children of Egyptian nobles. Whatever the organization's origins, the budding phenomenon would one day transform into the Society of Freemasonry, the bearers of divine secrets like no other, and one of the most fascinating and controversial brotherhoods in the history of mankind. The Freemasons: The History of Freemasonry and the World's Most Famous Secret Society examines the origins and history of the controversial brotherhood, its expansion across the globe, and some of the most mindboggling conspiracy theories that surround the society to this day. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about the Masons like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Nothing so needs reforming as other people's habits." - Mark Twain The Prohibition Era in the United States ran between 1920 and 1933, but its background and legacy are so massive and wide-ranging it may be affirmed that the subject is adhered to the country s history, from its first years until the modern era. In this 13-year period, the entire nation was forcibly converted to a society of non-drinkers. The movement formed slowly, exploding in 1920. Once it had passed, its effects continued to be felt through the rest of the 20th century. To this day, it can be said that Prohibition teaches an important lesson. The 18th Amendment making Prohibition constitutional and the Volstead Act detailing its enforcement did not come out of the blue-it was neither an electoral occurrence, nor was it a quick and surprising attack by a one interest group taking another unprepared. It was actually the result of a long period of indoctrination, a century of struggles between two political, and above all, moral positions: those who supported Prohibition-the so-called "drys," and those who opposed it, partly because they thought it should not be a government prerogative to control individual freedoms, also known as "the wets." The first group believed Prohibition of liquor, intoxicants, and saloons was a necessary measure to eradicate the great evils that were a part of the nation's life: drunken and violent husbands, labor accidents due to alcoholism, shattered homes, battered wives, and the family s patrimony lost in a single day. The wets defended a legitimate industry that produced jobs and taxes. They spoke of economic interests that would be damaged and of respect for sacrosanct individual freedom. Above all, the wets argued how strange it was that a government dedicated to liberty and equality would regulate an individual's private behavior, determining what he could or could not ingest. Since the beginning, wine had been an inseparable part of American culture, from the saloons of the Wild West, the grape fields of the California valleys, the tables of homes throughout the territory, to the clubs of the big cities where the working class met to talk about politics. This in addition to other areas in which wine culture was an essential feature, such as social cohesion, the economy, and in the arts-especially where music and literature was concerned. What no one could ignore was that since the beginning of the 19th century, the United States had a serious problem with the bottle. The nation of Washington, Adams, and Franklin, for example, had one of the highest consumption rates in the world and thus had the highest rates of alcohol-related diseases and family violence. When women, the principal group affected, decided it was the moment to raise their voices en masse, alcohol became a political topic that polarized the country. In favor of moderation were the eminently rural white people of the inner country with an Anglo-Saxon background. At the other extreme was the urban, cosmopolitan population, close to the coasts and therefore, with a better perspective where the rest of the world was concerned. There were two visions, two different sets of morals, and two ways of understanding the role of government. However, the dividing line between the drys and wets cannot be so clearly marked, even today. There were both progressive and retrograde persons on either side. On the drys side -whom we might be tempted to caricature as moralistic and uneducated-were, for example, the suffragists, the brave women who fought for the right to vote, social justice, and a place in the politics of their country. On the wets side, those against Prohibition, were moralistic institutions, such as the Catholic Church and the Jewish rabbinic community.