Charles River

*Includes pictures *Includes ancient accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading When American archaeologists discovered a collection of cuneiform tablets in Iraq in the late 19th century, they were confronted with a language and a people who were at the time only scarcely known to even the most knowledgeable scholars of ancient Mesopotamia: the Sumerians. The exploits and achievements of other Mesopotamian peoples, such as the Assyrians and Babylonians, were already known to a large segment of the population through the Old Testament and the nascent field of Near Eastern studies had unraveled the enigma of the Akkadian language that was widely used throughout the region in ancient times, but the discovery of the Sumerian tablets brought to light the existence of the Sumerian culture, which was the oldest of all the Mesopotamian cultures. Although the Sumerians continue to get second or even third billing compared to the Babylonians and Assyrians, perhaps because they never built an empire as great as the Assyrians or established a city as enduring and great as Babylon, they were the people who provided the template of civilization that all later Mesopotamians built upon. The Sumerians are credited with being the first people to invent writing, libraries, cities, and schools in Mesopotamia (Ziskind 1972, 34), and many would argue that they were the first people to create and do those things anywhere in world. For a people so great it is unfortunate that their accomplishments and contributions, not only to Mesopotamian civilization but to civilization in general, largely go unnoticed by the majority of the public. Perhaps the Sumerians were victims of their own success; they gradually entered the historical record, established a fine civilization, and then slowly submerged into the cultural patchwork of their surroundings. They also never suffered a great and sudden collapse like other peoples of the ancient Near East, such as the Hittites, Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians did. A close examination of Sumerian culture and chronology reveals that the Sumerians set the cultural tone in Mesopotamia for several centuries in the realms of politics/governments, arts, literature, and religion. Even today, the world owes the Sumerians a tremendous amount. When Western Europe was still in the Stone Age, it was the Sumerians who invented writing and the wheel, divided time into minutes and seconds, tamed nature, and built gigantic cities. They embraced culture and the arts, and their caravans crossed the desert, opening up the first trade routes. Their myths and legends inspired various origin stories, and their memory lives on in the Old Testament. They wrote the history of the birth of mankind. The heritage of the Sumerian civilization and their successors is everywhere. Sumer: The History of the Cities and Culture that Established Ancient Mesopotamia's First Civilization chronicles the most important people, places, and events that took place across Sumer. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Sumer like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes contemporary accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading In 1831, a 26-year old French foreign service official by the name of Ferdinand de Lesseps was sent to Alexandria to serve as vice-consul. While undergoing an obligatory period of quarantine, the French Consul-General, Monsieur Mimaut, sent his new understudy a number of books to help pass the time, and one of these books proved to be a lengthy memorandum composed by French engineer Jacques-Marie le P re, writing on instructions from Napoleon Bonaparte. The subject was the linking of the Red Sea with the Mediterranean by the construction of a canal. This study made a deep impression on the mind of the young diplomat, and for the remainder of his term of service in Egypt, he applied himself to studying the question. Eventually, he came to believe that it was not only a viable project, but a potentially profitable one too, and, of course, it would be nothing less than a stupendous gift to mankind. As it turned out, the concept of linking the Red Sea with the Mediterranean was not by any means new. In fact, the idea was as old as trade across the isthmus itself. Work on the Canal of the Pharaohs, or Necho's Canal, as it is more commonly known, began during Egypt's Nineteenth Dynasty, under the reign either of Sethi I, or his son, the great Rameses II. The project sought to link the two oceans through an artificial canal of modest length linking a navigable stretch of the Nile to the Bitter Lakes, and then to the Red Sea. Most people have heard of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, but while not as many have heard of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, those who have are aware that the Panama Canal is considered one of them. In a world where few natural rivers carved out over eons of time have reached a length of more than 50 miles, the idea that a group of men could carve a canal of that length seemed impossible. In fact, many thought it could not be done. On the other hand, there was a tremendous motivation to try, because if a canal could be successfully cut across Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, it would cut weeks off the time necessary to carry goods by sea from the well-established East Coast of the United States to the burgeoning West Coast. Moreover, traveling around the tip of South America was fraught with danger, and European explorers and settlers had proposed building a canal in Panama or Nicaragua several centuries before the Panama Canal was actually built. By the late 19th century, the French actually tried to build such a canal, only to fail after a great deal of resources were put into construction and after workers died of malaria and other illnesses. At the turn of the 20th century, not only was the need for a canal still there, but the right man was in the White House. Indeed, President Theodore Roosevelt, a celebrated outdoorsman, might have been the only president who could have foreseen and accomplished such an audacious feat, and even he considered it one of his crowning achievements. Building the Panama Canal was a herculean task in every sense. Taking about 10 years to build, workers had to excavate millions of cubic yards of earth and fight off hordes of insects to make Roosevelt's vision a reality. Roosevelt also had to tie up the U. S. Navy in a revolt in Colombia to ensure Panama could become independent and thus ensure America had control of the canal. By 1914, ships were finally traversing through the Panama Canal, just as World War I was about to start, and a century later, the Panama Canal remains one of the world's most vital waterways.

*Includes pictures *Includes contemporary accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading In 1831, a 26-year old French foreign service official by the name of Ferdinand de Lesseps was sent to Alexandria to serve as vice-consul. While undergoing an obligatory period of quarantine, the French Consul-General, Monsieur Mimaut, sent his new understudy a number of books to help pass the time, and one of these books proved to be a lengthy memorandum composed by French engineer Jacques-Marie le P re, writing on instructions from Napoleon Bonaparte. The subject was the linking of the Red Sea with the Mediterranean by the construction of a canal. This study made a deep impression on the mind of the young diplomat, and for the remainder of his term of service in Egypt, he applied himself to studying the question. Eventually, he came to believe that it was not only a viable project, but a potentially profitable one too, and, of course, it would be nothing less than a stupendous gift to mankind. As it turned out, the concept of linking the Red Sea with the Mediterranean was not by any means new. In fact, the idea was as old as trade across the isthmus itself. Work on the Canal of the Pharaohs, or Necho's Canal, as it is more commonly known, began during Egypt's Nineteenth Dynasty, under the reign either of Sethi I, or his son, the great Rameses II. The project sought to link the two oceans through an artificial canal of modest length linking a navigable stretch of the Nile to the Bitter Lakes, and then to the Red Sea. Most people have heard of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, but while not as many have heard of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, those who have are aware that the Panama Canal is considered one of them. In a world where few natural rivers carved out over eons of time have reached a length of more than 50 miles, the idea that a group of men could carve a canal of that length seemed impossible. In fact, many thought it could not be done. On the other hand, there was a tremendous motivation to try, because if a canal could be successfully cut across Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, it would cut weeks off the time necessary to carry goods by sea from the well-established East Coast of the United States to the burgeoning West Coast. Moreover, traveling around the tip of South America was fraught with danger, and European explorers and settlers had proposed building a canal in Panama or Nicaragua several centuries before the Panama Canal was actually built. By the late 19th century, the French actually tried to build such a canal, only to fail after a great deal of resources were put into construction and after workers died of malaria and other illnesses. At the turn of the 20th century, not only was the need for a canal still there, but the right man was in the White House. Indeed, President Theodore Roosevelt, a celebrated outdoorsman, might have been the only president who could have foreseen and accomplished such an audacious feat, and even he considered it one of his crowning achievements. Building the Panama Canal was a herculean task in every sense. Taking about 10 years to build, workers had to excavate millions of cubic yards of earth and fight off hordes of insects to make Roosevelt's vision a reality. Roosevelt also had to tie up the U. S. Navy in a revolt in Colombia to ensure Panama could become independent and thus ensure America had control of the canal. By 1914, ships were finally traversing through the Panama Canal, just as World War I was about to start, and a century later, the Panama Canal remains one of the world's most vital waterways.

*Includes pictures *Includes contemporary accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading By the golden age of the mountain man in the mid-19th-century, there were perhaps only 3,000 living in the West. Their origins were disparate, although they included many Anglo-Americans. A good number hailed from wilderness regions of Kentucky and Virginia and throughout the newly purchased Louisiana Territory, which occupied the entire central section of the continent. French Canadians traveled from the north to work in the fur trade, while Creole-Europeans represented approximately 15% of the men known to be living the isolated mountain life. Others were of M tis, Spanish, American, Black, Indian, and mixed-blood origin, most often Iroquois or Delaware. Most came to the West in their late adolescent years, the oldest learning the trade in their 30s. Many roamed the west for as long as their constitutions would hold up under constant attacks on their health and personal safety. Some stayed too long and failed to survive the experience. Among the most famous, Jim Bridger arrived at the age of 16, while Edward Robinson was eventually killed in his 60s by what were known as "bad snakes," a reference to the Snake tribe in Idaho country. Jim Beckwourth left the mountains at 68 and Old Bill Williams died at the age of 62 when a band of Utes "made him to come." Regardless of their motivations for entering the western forests, fur trapping was a central component of the lifestyle in order to satisfy the east coast and European fashion industries. The quest for fur of several varieties, particularly beaver, peaked in the 1840s, but many of the trappers continued for decades longer. Those laboring in the lower positions of the trade lasted an average of only 2.7 years in duration, while mid-level positions, such as traders and clerks, averaged 6.3. Directors and factory owners generally continued for approximately 15 years. Eventually, fashion moved on to other resources, but for the better part of a century, the frontiersman was the only worker able to survive the rigors of wilderness life while maintaining prosperity. Most of the most notable frontiersmen traveled immense distances during their careers, and for many, only distant memories could recreate the routes taken. Few of the significant wilderness figures were experienced as cartographers to create accurate maps for industry, settlement, and the military. These American frontiersmen made first contact with numerous indigenous tribes in virtually every area of the west, but viable maps were few. Between such disparate cultures, relations could prove profitable or deadly at a moment's notice. The accuracy of expedition diaries might put other explorers in harm's way, or offer tremendous advantages. No one of European descent came to understand the traditions and psychology of the western tribes as did the western mountain man, and in some instances, he was the only figure with whom the Indian community would enact business. This was the backdrop for bold, innovative men who both explored the frontier and survived along it, and in time, their legacies even began to upstage their colorful careers. Men like Kit Carson, who was literally a trailblazer for John C. Fremont's historic expeditions through the West in the 1840s, became proficient in both talking with and fighting Native Americans, and they served as heroes for the country's dime novels during the mid-19th century. Of course, the stories embellished so much that when one man found out how diminutive Kit Carson truly was, he responded, "You ain't the kind of Kit Carson I'm looking for." America's Most Influential Mountain Men: The History and Legacy of the 19th Century Explorers Who Helped Chart Paths to the West chronicles the Western icons' lives and examines the myths and legends in an attempt to separate fact from fiction.

*Includes pictures *Includes accounts of the fighting *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading Even before the American Revolution, Americans traveled west. From the narrow strip of the 13 colonies, across the Appalachians, ever westward they journeyed, and by the end of the 19th century, the United States of America stretched from sea to shining sea. Of course, just because the names on the borders changed, it did not tame the land or its previous residents. Americans desired California and Oregon, going to war for one and nearly going to war for the other. Once acquired, it now fell to the salt of the earth to settle these claimed lands, and everything in between. To do this meant crossing terrain unused to the heavy traffic of Westerners on the move. Though Indian trails followed rivers, hills, and valleys across the plains, Westerners often needed to create new paths capable of handling the heaver traffic and bulky covered wagons. At the same time, safety often required avoiding the natives. Though sometimes co-opting Indian trails for this purpose, oftentimes pioneering settlers worked to avoid such routes as well, especially when the natives took exception to their new neighbors. The Bozeman Trail ran through the Powder River country, which included the traditional hunting grounds of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples. Attempts by the natives to prevent encroachment and armed defense of settlers along the trail led to conflicts in short order. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. found itself engaged against the Sioux in what came to be known as Red Cloud's War. Among the Oglala Lakota, one of the most famous bands of the Native American Tribe known as the Sioux, Red Cloud led the group for 40 years, in war, in peace, and on a reservation, becoming so esteemed and influential that Americans began to mistakenly take him for the leader of the entire Sioux tribe. In the summer of 1866, Colonel Henry B. Carrington set out from Fort Laramie to establish a series of forts along the Bozeman Trail with the goal of protecting migrants moving along the trail. The Bozeman Trail ran through the Powder River country, which included the traditional hunting grounds of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples. Carrington had about 1,000 people in his column, of which about 700 were soldiers and 300 were civilians, likely soldiers' families and migrants. The ongoing hostilities, which included the notorious Fetterman's Massacre, ultimately convinced American officials to head back to the negotiating table with the Native Americans, and as a result, Red Cloud has often been labeled the only Indian chief to win a war against the Americans. After that, however, Red Cloud continued to lead his people to reservations first near the Black Hills and later westward after the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Though he was respected as a war chief, it was his political functions as a spokesman of the Oglala that truly allowed Red Cloud to leave his mark over the last several decades of his life. Whereas Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse suffered premature deaths, Red Cloud outlived the other important leaders of the Sioux until dying in 1909 at 87 years old. Near the end of his life, he reportedly said, "They made us many promises, more than I can remember. But they kept but one -- they promised to take our land...and they took it." Red Cloud's War: The History and Legacy of the Only 19th Century War Won by Native Americans against the United States analyzes the seminal moments that brought about the war, the war's most famous battles, and the aftermath. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Red Cloud's War like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading The reason for the existence of most of the world's cities is obvious to the student of geography. New York and Shanghai control deep ports and straddle great rivers bringing trade from the interior; Paris and London are at the crossing points of major cross-country rivers; Johannesburg sits atop a great mountain of gold ore; and Moscow and Madrid are at the heart of their great nations, easily able to control even the more distant corners of the land. Mecca, however, is different, as the city exists solely because it is holy. Even centuries before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, the leaders of Mecca established that their city was the pre-eminent holy site in western Arabia and established a truce for pilgrims to the city. In the process, one effect of this was that Mecca became a center for might today be described as tourism, as even ancient visitors needed places for food, water, and sleep. At the same time, they could make offerings in the temples and leave with mementos of their time in Mecca. Many also found it convenient to bring their trade goods to the markets of Mecca, where they could find visitors bringing interesting wares from across the region, and the city also enjoyed the status of a trade center. Of course, Mecca is now best known for being Islam's holiest city, revered as the birthplace of Muhammad and the site where Allah first revealed the Qu'ran to him. Within Mecca is the Ka'aba, a building housed within the Al-Masjid al-Haram (Great Mosque) that is considered the holiest site, and wherever they are in the world, Muslims face in the direction of the Ka'aba while praying. A pilgrimage to Mecca is considered a necessity for devout Muslims at some point in their lives, and the city itself is off limits to non-Muslims. Indeed, Mecca is so integral to Islam that the name of the city has entered the English lexicon and is a commonplace reference to any area closely associated with something (such as Paris often being called the mecca of fashion). Even centuries before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, Jews settled in the area that became Medina to escape persecution at the hands of the Babylonians and Romans, meaning the area and its arid environment brought inhabitants precisely because it wasn't an attractive or resource rich area. In fact, the city fated to become the second holiest city in Islam earned that spot simply by straddling trade routes to the religious city of Mecca, which brought traders and pilgrims in large enough numbers to make it a trade center. While people in the West are more familiar with Jerusalem's importance to Jews and Christians, Jerusalem's particular importance to the religion of Islam is without question one of the major sticking points in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Prior to Israeli control, Jerusalem had been predominantly controlled by Muslim rulers since the 7th century and had been used as a type of political currency, legitimizing the ruling dynasty's claim over the city. This right of control by Muslims was viewed no more differently than control over Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula. For the world's Muslim population, Jerusalem is a holy site because Muslims believe the Prophet Muhammad visited Jerusalem where he ascended to heaven during the famous "Night Journey." There was also a period of time during the Prophet's life when Muslims prayed in the direction of Jerusalem, as opposed to Mecca. Just as in Judaism and Christianity, Jerusalem plays a central role in End of Days prophecies in Islamic theology. As a result, Jerusalem has been an important symbol for Muslims for nearly 1,300 years, and it has played a crucial political role throughout the history of Islamic civilization as this important city has passed from ruler to ruler and dynasty to dynasty.

*Includes pictures *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading The reason for the existence of most of the world's cities is obvious to the student of geography. New York and Shanghai control deep ports and straddle great rivers bringing trade from the interior; Paris and London are at the crossing points of major cross-country rivers; Johannesburg sits atop a great mountain of gold ore; and Moscow and Madrid are at the heart of their great nations, easily able to control even the more distant corners of the land. Mecca, however, is different, as the city exists solely because it is holy. Even centuries before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, the leaders of Mecca established that their city was the pre-eminent holy site in western Arabia and established a truce for pilgrims to the city. In the process, one effect of this was that Mecca became a center for might today be described as tourism, as even ancient visitors needed places for food, water, and sleep. At the same time, they could make offerings in the temples and leave with mementos of their time in Mecca. Many also found it convenient to bring their trade goods to the markets of Mecca, where they could find visitors bringing interesting wares from across the region, and the city also enjoyed the status of a trade center. Of course, Mecca is now best known for being Islam's holiest city, revered as the birthplace of Muhammad and the site where Allah first revealed the Qu'ran to him. Within Mecca is the Ka'aba, a building housed within the Al-Masjid al-Haram (Great Mosque) that is considered the holiest site, and wherever they are in the world, Muslims face in the direction of the Ka'aba while praying. A pilgrimage to Mecca is considered a necessity for devout Muslims at some point in their lives, and the city itself is off limits to non-Muslims. Indeed, Mecca is so integral to Islam that the name of the city has entered the English lexicon and is a commonplace reference to any area closely associated with something (such as Paris often being called the mecca of fashion). Even centuries before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, Jews settled in the area that became Medina to escape persecution at the hands of the Babylonians and Romans, meaning the area and its arid environment brought inhabitants precisely because it wasn't an attractive or resource rich area. In fact, the city fated to become the second holiest city in Islam earned that spot simply by straddling trade routes to the religious city of Mecca, which brought traders and pilgrims in large enough numbers to make it a trade center. While people in the West are more familiar with Jerusalem's importance to Jews and Christians, Jerusalem's particular importance to the religion of Islam is without question one of the major sticking points in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Prior to Israeli control, Jerusalem had been predominantly controlled by Muslim rulers since the 7th century and had been used as a type of political currency, legitimizing the ruling dynasty's claim over the city. This right of control by Muslims was viewed no more differently than control over Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula. For the world's Muslim population, Jerusalem is a holy site because Muslims believe the Prophet Muhammad visited Jerusalem where he ascended to heaven during the famous "Night Journey." There was also a period of time during the Prophet's life when Muslims prayed in the direction of Jerusalem, as opposed to Mecca. Just as in Judaism and Christianity, Jerusalem plays a central role in End of Days prophecies in Islamic theology. As a result, Jerusalem has been an important symbol for Muslims for nearly 1,300 years, and it has played a crucial political role throughout the history of Islamic civilization as this important city has passed from ruler to ruler and dynasty to dynasty.

*Includes pictures *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading The center of political and commercial interaction in the Ancient Greek polis was the agora. The word essentially means a gathering place or an open space, and in all Greek city states, the agora was central to all aspects of daily life and commerce. As the agora developed as a civic space, particularly from the 6th century BCE onward in Athens, the architectural splendor of the buildings associated with it became an ever more obvious demonstration of the power and glory of Athenian democracy. In its earliest forms, an agora in maritime cities was invariably situated near the sea, while in inland urban centers, it was usually located at the foot of the hill that normally provided the city's ultimate defense. The agora was always the oldest part of any city and, as such, and as well as being the commercial hub of the area, also became the center of the religious and political life of the polis. In Homer's time, an agora might have seats for the comfort of the citizens that had assembled to consult with one another. The city's oldest sanctuaries were always located either in or very close to the agora itself, and the first festive games were held in its open space. Roads to and from the city centered on the agora, and it was usually the starting point for any processions to the various sacred sites visited by the populace. The space itself was treated in much the same way as a temenos or sacred precinct. The Roman Empire is the most famous in history, and the center of the far-reaching empire's activities was located in the Forum, a low area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills in Rome. The topography held a great deal of significance for Romans, and consequently so many layers of myth were laid on top of the landscape and buildings that it is difficult to separate legend from actual historical fact. As a low-lying area near the Tiber river, the Forum was subject to much flooding, and even into the 20th century, the Forum area could flood upwards of over 40 feet above sea level. This would factor significantly in the imagination of Romans, who later ascribed the flooding with saving the city's founders, Romulus and Remus, from execution. However, in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, this did not make for a good area for construction. Previous generations of excavators have concluded that in the beginning, there were waddle and daub huts in the Forum, as indicated by remains of organic food material, fragments of daub, and evidence of post holes dug in the ground for these structures. However, a recent environmental study has shown that such structures could not survive the flooding that was endemic to the Forum, suggesting that it took a few hundred years (during the period of the Roman kings) for the Romans to move up to 20,000 square meters of earth in order to reclaim land in the Forum, and a gravel pavement was placed on top of the landfill. If true, this project shows a high degree of organization and central planning. What is clear is that for well over a thousand years, the Forum was the scene of intense construction, as well as social, political, and commercial activity, making the Forum a boon for the study of Roman history, even though some buildings in the Forum are of such importance that they cannot be disassembled in order to discover the older layers underneath and thus find more evidence about the origins of this area. Ultimately, the Forum transformed from being a backwater used for grazing livestock into the religious and political center of Roman life, and it has long been an inspiration for subsequent generations, influencing the Renaissance, Romanticism, and even Fascism. The Athenian Agora and Roman Forum: The Beating Hearts of the Ancient World's Most Famous Cities examines the history of both cities' major centers.

*Includes pictures *Includes contemporary accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less." - Marie Curie The tens of millions who perished in the First World War - not to mention the horrendous turmoil that culminated in the outbreak of its successor - understandably marred the conception of the first decades of the 20th century. However, during that time, unparalleled minds from all over the globe unsnarled age-old mysteries and perfected prevailing theories, conjuring up wave after wave of breakthroughs that catapulted the world of science to unprecedented heights. Owing to this influx of novel ideas and innovative concepts, conferences had to be assembled to keep the relevant scientific spheres apprised of the latest advances. The formation of such conferences also allowed them to confront burning questions and investigate unexplored realms in their respective fields. At first glance, the image, captured at the Solvay Conference in October of 1927, seems no different than any other generic staff or faculty photograph. Pictured are 3 rows of stern, sharply suited figures, the middle and front rows seated on a line of chairs a step apart, and the last row, left to stand upright, hovering behind them in their best distinguished poses. Only upon closer inspection and a proper gander at the faces of those pictured does it dawn on one that this is no ordinary photograph - far from it. Often hailed as the "most intelligent photograph of all time," it features 29 of the most illustrious scientists in the world, 17 of whom were freshly crowned, as well as future Nobel laureates. The most familiar face is that of Albert Einstein, creator of the famous mass-energy equivalence formula (E=mc ) and the general theory of relativity. The 48-year-old had been presented with the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" 6 years prior. But in the picture near Einstein, seated two spaces to his left, is an older scientist with a solemn face lined with wisdom, framed by the wispy, snow-white flyaways of her characteristic loose bun. Her thin lips are somewhat pursed in a scowl, and there is an aura of confidence radiating from her, the lone woman amidst a pack of exalted, intimidating men. Her shoulders are relaxed, her legs are crossed under her plain black cloak, and her felt bowler hat rests casually against her lap. This is none other than Madame Marie Curie, who not only cracked the glass ceiling but completely shattered it. Not surprisingly, early 20th century society, stunted by its narrow, patriarchal mindset, assailed her with double the toilsome trials and taxing tribulations, many of which were unique to her solely on account of her gender. Be that as it may, the tenacious pupil-turned-savant soldiered on through the discrimination and clambered over the often gratuitous stumbling blocks, ultimately cementing her place in history as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Marie Curie: The Life and Legacy of the Legendary Scientist Who Became the First Woman to Win a Nobel Prize examines the career that made Madame Curie one of the world's most important figures. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Marie Curie like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes contemporary accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less." - Marie Curie The tens of millions who perished in the First World War - not to mention the horrendous turmoil that culminated in the outbreak of its successor - understandably marred the conception of the first decades of the 20th century. However, during that time, unparalleled minds from all over the globe unsnarled age-old mysteries and perfected prevailing theories, conjuring up wave after wave of breakthroughs that catapulted the world of science to unprecedented heights. Owing to this influx of novel ideas and innovative concepts, conferences had to be assembled to keep the relevant scientific spheres apprised of the latest advances. The formation of such conferences also allowed them to confront burning questions and investigate unexplored realms in their respective fields. At first glance, the image, captured at the Solvay Conference in October of 1927, seems no different than any other generic staff or faculty photograph. Pictured are 3 rows of stern, sharply suited figures, the middle and front rows seated on a line of chairs a step apart, and the last row, left to stand upright, hovering behind them in their best distinguished poses. Only upon closer inspection and a proper gander at the faces of those pictured does it dawn on one that this is no ordinary photograph - far from it. Often hailed as the "most intelligent photograph of all time," it features 29 of the most illustrious scientists in the world, 17 of whom were freshly crowned, as well as future Nobel laureates. The most familiar face is that of Albert Einstein, creator of the famous mass-energy equivalence formula (E=mc ) and the general theory of relativity. The 48-year-old had been presented with the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect" 6 years prior. But in the picture near Einstein, seated two spaces to his left, is an older scientist with a solemn face lined with wisdom, framed by the wispy, snow-white flyaways of her characteristic loose bun. Her thin lips are somewhat pursed in a scowl, and there is an aura of confidence radiating from her, the lone woman amidst a pack of exalted, intimidating men. Her shoulders are relaxed, her legs are crossed under her plain black cloak, and her felt bowler hat rests casually against her lap. This is none other than Madame Marie Curie, who not only cracked the glass ceiling but completely shattered it. Not surprisingly, early 20th century society, stunted by its narrow, patriarchal mindset, assailed her with double the toilsome trials and taxing tribulations, many of which were unique to her solely on account of her gender. Be that as it may, the tenacious pupil-turned-savant soldiered on through the discrimination and clambered over the often gratuitous stumbling blocks, ultimately cementing her place in history as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Marie Curie: The Life and Legacy of the Legendary Scientist Who Became the First Woman to Win a Nobel Prize examines the career that made Madame Curie one of the world's most important figures. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Marie Curie like never before.

*Includes pictures *Includes accounts of fighting *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading One of the most important breakthroughs in military technology associated with World War I, and certainly the one that continues to capture the public imagination, was the use of airplanes, which were a virtual novelty a decade before. While the war quickly ground to a halt in its first few months, the skies above the Western Front became increasingly busy. The great powers had already been acquiring aircraft for potential uses, but given that aerial warfare had never been a major component of any conflict, it's understandable that few on either side had any idea what the planes were capable of doing. Furthermore, at the start of the war, all sides' aircraft were ill-equipped for combat mostly because the idea that planes might somehow fight was still a novel one, and the adaptations had not yet been developed that would allow the aerial battles later in the war. The Royal Air Force (RAF), Britain's legendary air arm, was born in the skies above the First World War. The British had previously used balloons for spotting and reconnaissance for decades, and in the years leading up to the war, planes started seeing military use. They mostly provided reconnaissance, though experiments were made in using them offensively. During the Boer War of 1899-1902, the British Army used the crews of helium-filled balloons to plot and help target artillery fire. But these were small, tentative steps. The first patent to fit a machine gun to a plane, taken out in 1910, had not yet led to active fighting vehicles, and there was no doctrine, no tactics, and no combat between massed air fleets. That changed during World War I, as the skies above the Western Front became the crucible in which the preceding fragments of aerial warfare were smelted in the white hot heat of war. For the British, this meant the creation of a large and unified flying force which by 1918 would become the RAF. The Third Reich's Luftwaffe began World War II with significant advantages over other European air forces, playing a critical role in the German war machine's swift, powerful advance. By war's end, however, the Luftwaffe had been decimated by combat losses and crippled by poor decisions at the highest levels of military decision-making, and it proved unable to challenge Allied air superiority despite a last-minute upsurge in German aircraft production. Though the superb fighting qualities of highly trained and motivated German soldiers, and the Third Reich's technological superiority in tank and weapon design, also had crucial roles to play, the Luftwaffe represented the key element making the successes of all other branches possible. While the Luftwaffe enjoyed air superiority, the combat fortunes of the Third Reich continued to ride high. When control of the air passed decisively to the Allies, Germany's hopes of victory began accelerating into a spiral of defeat. Much of it was due to the RAF and the Battle of Britain. The largest air campaign in history at the time, the vaunted Nazi Luftwaffe sought to smash the RAF as a prelude to German invasion, leaving the British public and its pilots engaged in what they believed was a desperate fight for national survival. That's what it looked like to the rest of the world too, as free men everywhere held their breaths. Could these pilots, many not yet old enough to shave, avoid the fate of Poland and France? The fate of the free world, at least as Europe knew it, hung in the balance over the skies of Britain during those tense months. Of course, the RAF was instrumental in other ways during the war. The RAF supported Allied forces all over the world, from Norway to Burma to Tunisia, and the RAF conducted devastating bombing campaigns against German industry and cities.

*Includes pictures *Includes accounts of the fighting *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading World War I, also known in its time as the "Great War" or the "War to End all Wars", was an unprecedented holocaust in terms of its sheer scale. Fought by men who hailed from all corners of the globe, it saw millions of soldiers do battle in brutal assaults of attrition which dragged on for months with little to no respite. Tens of millions of artillery shells and untold hundreds of millions of rifle and machine gun bullets were fired in a conflict that demonstrated man's capacity to kill each other on a heretofore unprecedented scale, and as always, such a war brought about technological innovation at a rate that made the boom of the Industrial Revolution seem stagnant. One of the most important breakthroughs in military technology associated with World War I, and certainly the one that continues to capture the public imagination, was the use of airplanes, which were a virtual novelty a decade before. While the war quickly ground to a halt in its first few months, the skies above the Western Front became increasingly busy. The great powers had already been acquiring aircraft for potential uses, but given that aerial warfare had never been a major component of any conflict, it's understandable that few on either side had any idea what the planes were capable of doing. Furthermore, at the start of the war, all sides' aircraft were ill-equipped for combat mostly because the idea that planes might somehow fight was still a novel one, and the adaptations had not yet been developed that would allow the aerial battles later in the war. Some armies, such as the French, saw air intelligence as a strategic matter, with aircraft capable mainly of identifying enemy forces before battle and contributing to advanced preparations. The Germans, on the other hand, believed that aircraft could provide tactical information once battle had commenced. Pilots such as Oswald Boelcke, Germany's first great aerial officer, would identify Allied positions to direct the fire of artillery on the ground. As a result, aircraft were used almost entirely for reconnaissance early on, allowing generals to gain unprecedented levels of information about enemy movements. Such intelligence allowed the French to counter German movements in what became the First Battle of the Marne, ending Germany's hopes for victory through the Schlieffen plan. Similarly, in the east, German planes were vital in tracking, encircling and destroying Russian forces at Tannenberg. The Royal Air Force (RAF), Britain's legendary air arm, was born in the skies above the First World War. The British had previously used balloons for spotting and reconnaissance for decades, and in the years leading up to the war, planes started seeing military use. They mostly provided reconnaissance, though experiments were made in using them offensively. During the Boer War of 1899-1902, the British Army used the crews of helium-filled balloons to plot and help target artillery fire. But these were small, tentative steps. The first patent to fit a machine gun to a plane, taken out in 1910, had not yet led to active fighting vehicles, and there was no doctrine, no tactics, and no combat between massed air fleets. That changed during World War I, as the skies above the Western Front became the crucible in which the preceding fragments of aerial warfare were smelted in the white hot heat of war. For the British, this meant the creation of a large and unified flying force which by 1918 would become the RAF. German and Allied Air Forces in World War I: The History and Legacy of the Rivals in the Sky during the Great War looks at the roles the German and Allied air forces played during the war, from their origins to the war's end. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the rival air forces like never b

*Includes pictures *Includes accounts of the fighting *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading World War I, also known in its time as the "Great War" or the "War to End all Wars", was an unprecedented holocaust in terms of its sheer scale. Fought by men who hailed from all corners of the globe, it saw millions of soldiers do battle in brutal assaults of attrition which dragged on for months with little to no respite. Tens of millions of artillery shells and untold hundreds of millions of rifle and machine gun bullets were fired in a conflict that demonstrated man's capacity to kill each other on a heretofore unprecedented scale, and as always, such a war brought about technological innovation at a rate that made the boom of the Industrial Revolution seem stagnant. One of the most important breakthroughs in military technology associated with World War I, and certainly the one that continues to capture the public imagination, was the use of airplanes, which were a virtual novelty a decade before. While the war quickly ground to a halt in its first few months, the skies above the Western Front became increasingly busy. The great powers had already been acquiring aircraft for potential uses, but given that aerial warfare had never been a major component of any conflict, it's understandable that few on either side had any idea what the planes were capable of doing. Furthermore, at the start of the war, all sides' aircraft were ill-equipped for combat mostly because the idea that planes might somehow fight was still a novel one, and the adaptations had not yet been developed that would allow the aerial battles later in the war. Some armies, such as the French, saw air intelligence as a strategic matter, with aircraft capable mainly of identifying enemy forces before battle and contributing to advanced preparations. The Germans, on the other hand, believed that aircraft could provide tactical information once battle had commenced. Pilots such as Oswald Boelcke, Germany's first great aerial officer, would identify Allied positions to direct the fire of artillery on the ground. As a result, aircraft were used almost entirely for reconnaissance early on, allowing generals to gain unprecedented levels of information about enemy movements. Such intelligence allowed the French to counter German movements in what became the First Battle of the Marne, ending Germany's hopes for victory through the Schlieffen plan. Similarly, in the east, German planes were vital in tracking, encircling and destroying Russian forces at Tannenberg. The Royal Air Force (RAF), Britain's legendary air arm, was born in the skies above the First World War. The British had previously used balloons for spotting and reconnaissance for decades, and in the years leading up to the war, planes started seeing military use. They mostly provided reconnaissance, though experiments were made in using them offensively. During the Boer War of 1899-1902, the British Army used the crews of helium-filled balloons to plot and help target artillery fire. But these were small, tentative steps. The first patent to fit a machine gun to a plane, taken out in 1910, had not yet led to active fighting vehicles, and there was no doctrine, no tactics, and no combat between massed air fleets. That changed during World War I, as the skies above the Western Front became the crucible in which the preceding fragments of aerial warfare were smelted in the white hot heat of war. For the British, this meant the creation of a large and unified flying force which by 1918 would become the RAF. German and Allied Air Forces in World War I: The History and Legacy of the Rivals in the Sky during the Great War looks at the roles the German and Allied air forces played during the war, from their origins to the war's end. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the rival air forces like never b

*Includes pictures *Includes accounts of the fighting *Includes online resource and a bibliography for further reading "My Luftwaffe is invincible... And so now we turn to England. How long will this one last - two, three weeks?" - Hermann G ring, June 1940 The Third Reich's Luftwaffe began World War II with significant advantages over other European air forces, playing a critical role in the German war machine's swift, powerful advance. By war's end, however, the Luftwaffe had been decimated by combat losses and crippled by poor decisions at the highest levels of military decision-making, and it proved unable to challenge Allied air superiority despite a last-minute upsurge in German aircraft production. Given its unique strengths and distinctive weaknesses by the personal quirks of the men who developed it, the Luftwaffe initially overwhelmed the more conservative, outdated military aviation of other countries. Its leaders embraced such concepts as the dive-bomber, which proved both utterly devastating and extremely useful for supporting the sweeping, powerful movements of Blitzkrieg, while other martial establishments rejected dive-bombers as impractical or even impossible. Though the superb fighting qualities of highly trained and motivated German soldiers, and the Third Reich's technological superiority in tank and weapon design, also had crucial roles to play, the Luftwaffe represented the key element making the successes of all other branches possible. While the Luftwaffe enjoyed air superiority, the combat fortunes of the Third Reich continued to ride high. When control of the air passed decisively to the Allies, Germany's hopes of victory began accelerating into a spiral of defeat. The Luftwaffe's eventual loss of aerial domination exposed the Germans to precisely the same misfortunes on the ground as they had once relentlessly inflicted on the Poles and Russians. In the Falaise Pocket in Normandy, for example, the splendidly lethal Panthers, Tigers, and Tiger II tanks of the Nazi Panzer Divisions never had the opportunity to destroy the flimsily-armored, outgunned Sherman tanks of their American opponents. Instead, American fighter-bombers systematically annihilated them and their supporting infantry formations from the air, leaving the landscape strewn with flipped-over tank hulks and in places literally carpeted with the flesh of dead men. Some 10,000 Germans died and 50,000 surrendered to the Western Allies at Falaise, due to Hitler's order to counterattack without air support. Of course, the loss of that domination was due in most part to the efforts of Britain's Royal Air Force, which prevented Nazi Germany from conquering Britain on their own. The Battle of Britain, fought throughout the summer and early autumn of 1940, was unquestionably epic in scope. The largest air campaign in history at the time, the vaunted Nazi Luftwaffe sought to smash the RAF as a prelude to German invasion, leaving the British public and its pilots engaged in what they believed was a desperate fight for national survival. The fate of the free world, at least as Europe knew it, hung in the balance over the skies of Britain. Of course, the RAF was instrumental in other ways during the war. The RAF supported Allied forces all over the world, from Norway to Burma to Tunisia, and the RAF conducted devastating bombing campaigns against German industry and cities. In the end, the Allies emerged victorious, even as Britain fell behind other leading nations in air technology. World War II witnessed the birth of the jet age, a future glimpsed briefly in the spectacular but doomed appearance of the Messerschmitt Me 262 near the war's end, and Britain would be the only nation other than Germany with a jet fighter in combat by the time World War II was through. The Luftwaffe and the Royal Air Force: The History and Legacy of Nazi Germany and Great Britain's Air Forces in World War II

*Includes pictures *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "The gratitude of every home in our island, in our Empire, and indeed throughout the world except in the abodes of the guilty goes out to the British airmen who, undaunted by odds, unweakened by their constant challenge and mortal danger, are turning the tide of world war by their prowess and their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few." - Winston Churchill, August 21, 1940. At the end of August 2012, BBC ran a report about the commemoration of a young man who had been killed over 70 years earlier. "A Battle of Britain pilot who was killed when his Spitfire crashed following a dogfight in the skies above Kent has been honored. Flying Officer Oswald St John 'Ossie' Pigg lost his life in the crash at Elvey Farm on 1 September 1940. The 22-year-old had been involved in an aerial fight with a Messerschmitt. A plaque was unveiled near the site by his niece Stephanie Haigh and the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight carried out a flypast on Thursday." Just 12 days before Pigg's death, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had already immortalized the men of the Royal Air Force with one of the West's most famous war-time quotes. But the sentiment and gratitude Churchill expressed back in 1940 is very much alive today. The sacrifice made by "The Few", the British and Allied fighter pilots who won the Battle of Britain in 1940, remains close to the hearts of the British public, and the piece by the BBC is typical of the national sentiment manifested in air shows, museums, TV programs and books. Even as the last of "The Few" pass on, it seems unlikely that the legend they helped to create will be forgotten anytime soon. There are a number of reasons for that, chief among them the belief that it was this handful of men, many of them barely out of school, who prevented Nazi Germany from conquering Britain on their own. With the comfort of hindsight, historians now suggest that the picture was actually more complex than that, but the Battle of Britain, fought throughout the summer and early autumn of 1940, was unquestionably epic in scope. The largest air campaign in history at the time, the vaunted Nazi Luftwaffe sought to smash the RAF as a prelude to German invasion, leaving the British public and its pilots engaged in what they believed was a desperate fight for national survival. That's what it looked like to the rest of the world too, as free men everywhere held their breaths. Could these pilots, many not yet old enough to shave, avoid the fate of Poland and France? The fate of the free world, at least as Europe knew it, hung in the balance over the skies of Britain during those tense months. Thankfully, the RAF stood toe-to-toe with the Luftwaffe and ensured Hitler's planned invasion was permanently put on hold. The Allied victory in the Battle of Britain inflicted a psychological and physical defeat on the Luftwaffe and Nazi regime at large, and as the last standing bastion of democracy in Europe, Britain would provide the toehold for the June 1944 invasion of Europe that liberated the continent. For those reasons alone, the Battle of Britain was one of the decisive turning points of history's deadliest conflict. Of course, the RAF was instrumental in other ways during the war. The RAF supported Allied forces all over the world, from Norway to Burma to Tunisia, and the RAF conducted devastating bombing campaigns against German industry and cities. In the end, the Allies emerged victorious, even as Britain fell behind other leading nations in air technology. World War II witnessed the birth of the jet age, a future glimpsed briefly in the spectacular but doomed appearance of the Messerschmitt Me 262 near the war's end, and Britain would be the only nation other than Germany with a jet fighter in combat by the time World War II was through.

*Includes pictures of Marilyn and important people and scenes. *Includes quotes about her life and career. *Includes a bibliography for further reading. "The truth is I've never fooled anyone. I've let people fool themselves. They didn't bother to find out who and what I was. Instead they would invent a character for me. I wouldn't argue with them. They were obviously loving somebody I wasn't. When they found this out, they would blame me for disillusioning them and fooling them." - Marilyn Monroe A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history's most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors' American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America's most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known. Few actresses lived their lives in the public eye more than Marilyn Monroe, and yet her life remains shrouded in mystery to this day. While it is common knowledge that Marilyn's life is a rags-to-riches story, her life is bookended by hazy details surrounding her early life and even more mysterious death. Who was Norma Jean Baker? Who was Marilyn Monroe? The unknown has contributed to the mythology that has since become part of her legacy, and she nurtured it. Marilyn was adept at constructing a fanciful mystique about her early years, and it's become all but impossible to disentangle the truth from the narrative that Marilyn helped establish. Fittingly, even though Marilyn is instantly recognizable and still one of film's greatest icons, her films remain unfamiliar to the vast majority of the public. Most people have some preconception of Marilyn's film persona, seeing her as the "dumb blonde" without a brain who existed only in order to be gazed upon. However, one of the essential questions concerning Marilyn's life involves the accuracy of the "Marilyn stereotype"; is the "dumb blonde" identity an accurate descriptor of her film roles, and how does it compare to Marilyn's personality off of the movie set? Given how famous Marilyn Monroe was and continues to be, it's remarkable that so many people know so little about her life and career. What is known is that Marilyn Monroe was America's ultimate sex symbol in the 20th century, in part because she came of age in the wake of World War II and became famous during the conservative era of the 1950s. She appeared in just two films in the 1960s, prior to her premature death in August 1962, and there is a wide gulf between the brevity of her career and the impact that she made on American culture throughout the 1950s. Marilyn's death left everyone to speculate where her career would have gone in the 1960s, but it's probably safe to guess she wouldn't be the icon she remains today. American Legends: The Life of Marilyn Monroe comprehensively examines the starlet's life and films, exploring the controversies and the ways in which her life and works are mutually informative. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Marilyn Monroe like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes Wilson's Fourteen Points, Inaugural Addresses, and his War Message to Congress for World War I. *Discusses controversies surrounding Wilson's life and presidency, including the rumors surrounding his wife's role in 1920 after his strokes in office. *Includes pictures of Wilson and important people and places in his life. *Includes some of Wilson's most famous quotes. "Sometimes people call me an idealist. Well, that is the way I know I am an American." - Woodrow Wilson A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history's most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors' American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America's most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known. As one of the most influential men of the 20th century, there is no shortage of adjectives to use when describing Woodrow Wilson's two terms as president of the United States. Wilson was a pioneer of the Progressive movement both before and during his presidency, becoming a populist champion a generation before Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal. He ran for reelection by touting his neutrality during World War I, only to lead his nation into the war and become the architect of a world body that would lead to greater inter-connection among nations. Today Wilson is best remembered for his Fourteen Points, one of the most forceful arguments for an idealistic foreign policy in American history, and his fight for the League of Nations, which set the model for today's United Nations. Wilson's presidency was monumentally consequential, but it is not without its critics, nor is the man himself. Even as Wilson has come to be viewed as one of America's greatest presidents, perception of Wilson and his administration as racist have also taken hold. Despite being one of the early 20th century's most forceful proponents of a globalized foreign policy, Wilson's personal views and comments were ardently anti-immigration, and Wilson's administration entrenched and expanded segregation in the federal government. Perhaps the greatest controversy over Wilson's presidency is the way in which it finished. Wilson suffered a debilitating stroke in 1919 that left him severely incapacitated, and he stayed out of both the public eye and even private eye for the remainder of his term. With his wife Edith keeping him isolated from the Vice President, the Cabinet, and Congressmen, she served as a kind of chief of staff, determining what issues were sent to him and which issues were sent to Cabinet officials. Given questions over his competence after the stroke, it has long been speculated that Edith essentially served as president in her husband's stead until he left office in 1921. American Legends: The Life of Woodrow Wilson chronicles the life of the idealistic president, examines his groundbreaking presidency, and analyzes his legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Woodrow Wilson like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes pictures *Includes Matthau's own quotes about his life and career *Includes a bibliography for further reading "Every actor looks all his life for a part that will combine his talents with his personality...'The Odd Couple' was mine. That was the plutonium I needed. It all started happening after that." - Walter Matthau A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history's most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors' American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America's most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known. Walter Matthau is probably best-remembered for his films with Jack Lemmon, but he was clearly an established actor in Hollywood by the time they appeared in their first film together. Before his movies with Lemmon, Matthau most often played shady criminals in dramatic films, and his character in Elia Kazan's A Face in the Crowd (1957) offers one of the best examples. Matthau's major breakthrough did not occur until 1965, when he starred in the stage production of The Odd Couple, which was later adapted into the film that might be the duo's best known movie together. For Matthau, teaming up with Lemmon did not elevate him to stardom, but his films with Matthau are generally more traditional comedies and not necessarily romantic comedies. In several of their movies, viewers witness all of the core elements of the Lemmon-Matthau dynamic. Lemmon plays the straight man to Matthau's shadier, conniving character, and a sharp contrast exists between the two: Lemmon is relatively short and conventionally handsome, while Matthau is far taller and appears far more clownish, and the contrast would grow starker as they aged and Matthau became rather stocky. Even though Lemmon is invariably tempted by Matthau's schemes, he denounces them at the conclusion but doesn't reject or condemn Matthau as a person. A romantic plot often develops between leading ladies and the two actors, but the chief relationship is usually between Lemmon and Matthau, whose comedic value as a team is greater than the sum of its parts. It is all the more noteworthy that while Lemmon and Matthau are often mentioned in the pantheon of legendary male comedy teams, they were not natural comics in the manner of Laurel and Hardy or Abbot and Costello. Instead, they became great comics when acting alongside their comic foil, and while it is Matthau who took primacy in The Fortune Cookie (he did win an Academy Award, after all), in The Odd Couple, Saul Austerlitz argues that the opposite occurs in the subsequent movie: "Matthau has the showier role as gruff, sloppy sportswriter Oscar Madison, but Lemmon steals the show as the prim... Felix Unger." In an act of homage toward their legendary partnership, Lemmon was buried near Matthau, who died about a year before Lemmon, and upon Matthau's death, Lemmon stated, "I have lost someone I loved as a brother, as a closest friend, and a remarkable human being. We have also lost one of the best damn actors we'll ever see." Lemmon may have put it even more aptly when he said, "Death ends a life, not a relationship." American Legends: The Life of Walter Matthau explores the life and career of one of America's favorite grumpy old men. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Matthau like never before, in no time at all.

*Includes the entire text of Cleburne's 1864 letter proposing to free the Confederacy's slaves. *Includes pictures of Cleburne and important people, places, and events in his life. *Includes maps of the battles Cleburne fought in, including Shiloh, Chickamauga, and Missionary Ridge. *Includes a Bibliography for further reading. "As between the loss of independence and the loss of slavery, we assume that every patriot will freely give up the latter..." - Patrick Cleburne, 1864 During the Civil War, the eyes of the nation usually stayed fixed to the Eastern theater, where Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia constantly bedeviled the Union Army of the Potomac and its many commanders. Instrumental to that success at places like Second Manassas and Chancellorsville was Lee's corps commander Stonewall Jackson, who became one of the most popular and respected generals of the Civil War. Despite the Confederates' success in holding off the Union's offensives in the East, however, the Union made steady progress in the Western theater, winning battles like Shiloh, capturing New Orleans, and sealing off the Mississippi River at Vicksburg. Like the Union generals in the East, Confederate generals in the West were either mortally wounded in battle (Albert Sidney Johnston) or proved ineffective (Braxton Bragg, John Pemberton). One of the only bright spots in the West for the Confederacy was Irish immigrant Patrick Cleburne, whose successes earned him the nickname "Stonewall of the West". Where so many Confederates were failing, Cleburne's strategic tactics and bold defensive fighting earned him fame and recognition throughout the South, even leading Lee to call him "a meteor shining from a clouded sky." Unfortunately for Cleburne, he is also remembered today for reasons other than his battlefield successes. Cleburne was tasked with leading an assault that he heartily opposed during the Battle of Franklin near the end of 1864, but he obeyed the command and was killed in the assault within the Union lines. The general was so legendary even among Union soldiers that the valuables on his body were looted before his body came back to Confederate lines Upon hearing of his death, Cleburne's old corps commander noted, "Where this division defended, no odds broke its line; where it attacked, no numbers resisted its onslaught, save only once; and there is the grave of Cleburne." Cleburne is also remembered for a bold and novel idea that he proposed to the Army of Tennessee in 1864. Realizing the Confederates' deficiency in manpower and resources, Cleburne suggested freeing the South's slaves so that they would fight for the Confederacy. It was such a radical idea that the Army buried it, and even when the Confederacy was on its last legs entering 1865, it could not muster the political support to emancipate some of their slaves to fight. The Stonewall of the West: The Life and Career of General Patrick Cleburne chronicles the life and career of the Stonewall of the West, analyzing his record in the war and assessing his legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events in his life, you will learn about General Cleburne like you never have before, in no time at all.

*Includes Revere's firsthand account of his midnight ride. *Includes Longfellow's famous poem, Paul Revere's Ride. *Includes pictures of Revere and important people, places, and events in his life. *Includes a Bibliography for further reading. "Out started six officers, seized my bridle, put their pistols to my breast, ordered me to dismount, which I did. One of them, who appeared to have the command there, and much of a gentleman, asked me where I came from; I told him. He asked what time I left . I told him, he seemed surprised, said ''Sir, may I crave your name'' I answered 'My name is Revere.'" - Paul Revere A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history's most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors' American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America's most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known. Over the course of 83 years, Paul Revere was one of the most prominent citizens in Boston, heralded for his silversmith work, his participation in the Sons of Liberty, and his service in the Massachusetts militia. Bearing 16 children by two wives, 11 of whom survived to adulthood, Revere supported his large family by doing everything from dentistry to casting church bells and engraving the most popular image of the Boston Massacre. His ability to roll copper into sheets made his work even more valuable to the dry docks and naval construction in Charlestown and around Boston. Given everything he did for Boston and his community, it would have no doubt greatly surprised Revere at the end of his life if he had known he would become an American legend for his midnight ride on the night of April 18, 1775. As a fervent and well-connected patriot who was part of Boston's intelligence network, Revere was sent on the ride toward Lexington along with William Dawes, with the intention of warning the countryside that British troops were heading that way presumably to arrest patriot leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock. After warning Adams and Hancock, Revere, Dawes, and another messenger, Samuel Prescott were stopped and detained by British soldiers on the path toward Concord, and though Dawes and Prescott managed to escape, Revere was escorted back toward Lexington by the British that morning. As it turned out, Revere and the patriots were wrong about the actual reason for the British march that morning, and Revere did not successfully finish his own ride. So why is he one of the most famous men of the colonial era? The legend of Paul Revere can be almost completely credited to famous American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, whose poem "Paul Revere's Ride" has shaped the legacy of the man and his ride, even though Longfellow intentionally took artistic license and fudged the historical accuracy in an effort to cast Revere as a hero. To say it worked would be a drastic understatement. American Legends: The Life of Paul Revere chronicles the Midnight Ride that made Revere famous and includes his own account of it, but it also covers the entire life and career of the patriot leader and humanizes one of the best known Bostonians of the day. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events in his life, you will learn about Paul Revere like you never have before, in no time at all.