Charles River

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingChristmas is the most important holiday of the year. After the corresponding days that exalt the national pride of each country, such as Independence Day in the United States, Victory Day in Russia, or Bastille Day in France, it's December 25 that articulates the life, the work and the economy in much of the world, including many non-Christian countries. Since ancient times, the beginning of winter has been the occasion for most people to eat, drink, dance, and get together to beat the drum and take a break. Especially since the 20th century on, the days adjacent to the holiday have become an occasion to do big business. The winter season is the most solid stimulus for the economy - more than any fiscal package - since the incomes of families, spending, credit, and consumption in all productive sectors are significantly increased. In the United States alone, Christmas sales are estimated to generate $3 trillion. One of the most important figures constantly brought up during the Christmas season is Saint Nicholas, despite the fact most people know little about him. In the 21st century, Saint Nicholas (or as people often refer to him, "Jolly Old Saint Nick") has been reduced to a pretend, adorably portly grandfather-type, a visual often accompanied by a fleet of magical reindeer and a bustling workshop staffed by endlessly cheerful elves. Most assume, quite understandably, that Saint Nicholas was the fount of inspiration that Santa Claus' myth weavers steadily drank from over the centuries. While this is accurate to some extent, it is important to remember that the parallels between Saint Nicholas and the present-day Santa Claus marketed by mass media are actually quite limited. Santa Claus is a man with many monikers - Kris Kringle, Father Christmas, Papai Noel, among others - and is perhaps the most iconic and internationally recognized personality in recent history. Pop culture enthusiasts know to trace Santa's roots to Saint Nicholas, and it's widely accepted that Coke manufactured the contemporary image of Santa embraced by the world today. On both counts, they are only partially correct, because in reality, Santa is a colorful amalgamation of different figures who appear in various countries' folk stories across a wide range of centuries. After Nicholas of Myra's death, December 6 became his feast day, and over the centuries, children anticipated his appearance with gifts. However, other children, particularly those of the mischievous sort, trembled under their covers on December 6, because they could not look forward to tinkling sleigh bells or belly-shaking laughs. Instead, they feared the disconcerting sounds of heavy breathing, guttural growls, and rattling chains, all of which came from the terrifying Krampus. Despite the best efforts of the Catholic Church and other conservative groups, Krampus is in the midst of a major Renaissance, penetrating not only modern literature, but even becoming a fixture of pop culture. This is evidenced by the creature's recent starring roles in the films Krampus, Night of the Krampus, and Mother Krampus, and its cameos in such TV shows and animations as Grimm, Supernatural, American Dad, and Venture Brothers. Saint Nicholas and Krampus: The History of the Popular Companions Who Reward and Punish Children during the Christmas Season looks at what the real St. Nicholas's life was like, how he served as the historical inspiration for Santa, and how Krampus developed as a sidekick of sorts. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Saint Nicholas and Krampus like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes accountsDespite the fact that the Civil War began over 150 years ago, it remains one of the most widely discussed topics in America today, with Americans arguing over its causes, reenacting its famous battles, and debating which general was better than others. Americans continue to be fascinated by the Civil War icons who made the difference between victory and defeat in the war's great battles. The most famous attack of the Civil War was also one of its most fateful and fatal. Pickett's Charge, the climactic assault on the final day of the Battle of Gettysburg, has become the American version of the Charge of the Light Brigade, and it is one of the most famous events of the entire Civil War. Having been unable to break the Army of the Potomac's lines on the left and right flank during Day 2 of the Battle of Gettysburg, Confederate Army of Northern Virginia commander Robert E. Lee decided to make a thrust at the center of the Union's line with about 15,000 men spread out over three divisions. The charge required marching across an open field for about a mile, with the Union artillery holding high ground on all sides of the incoming Confederates. Aware of the insanity of sending 15,000 men hurtling into all the Union artillery, Lee planned to use the Confederate artillery to try to knock out the Union artillery ahead of time. Although old friend William Pendleton was the artillery chief, the artillery cannonade would be supervised by Edward Porter Alexander, Longstreet's chief artillerist, who would have to give the go-ahead to the charging infantry because they were falling under Longstreet's command. Alexander later noted that Longstreet was so disturbed and dejected about ordering the attack that at one point he tried to make Alexander order the infantry forward, essentially doing Longstreet's dirty work for him. Unfortunately for Porter Alexander and the Confederates, the sheer number of cannons belched so much smoke that they had trouble gauging how effective the shells were. As it turned out, most of the artillery was overshooting the target, landing in the rear of the Union line. Reluctant to order the charge, Longstreet commanded Porter Alexander to order the timing for the charge. As Longstreet and Alexander anticipated, the charge was an utter disaster, incurring a nearly 50% casualty rate and failing to break the Union line. The Charge of the Light Brigade is the most famous British cavalry charge in history, possibly also eclipsing the renown of any other mounted attack conducted by the armed forces of other nations in the general imagination. This cavalry action is certainly remembered far more vividly than the 1854 Battle of Balaclava during which it occurred, and even the wider Crimean War that led to the battle. Of course, the prominence of the Charge in popular and historical memory is due primarily to Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem describing the events of that distant late October afternoon. The bearded Poet Laureate crafted a powerful, gripping poetic narrative that fixed the encounter firmly in both the popular imagination and in the English literary oeuvre. Millions of people who know nothing else of the Crimean War between Great Britain and the Russian Empire are familiar with Tennyson's memorable verses: Powerful as this vision of buffoonish commanders leading soldiers infused with ant-like obedience may be in the world of poetry, considerable documentation still exists which at least partially refutes such an interpretation. These documents, recently revisited by a handful of historians, greatly diminish the role of upper-echelon mistakes in causing the Charge. They restore agency and initiative to the ordinary British soldiers, highlighting them as fierce, independent-minded, and energetic actors in their own right, who very nearly changed the outcome

A B blia o livro mais famoso do mundo, lido por um n mero incont vel de crist os e outros ao longo dos s culos. Mesmo aqueles que n o s o crist os ou remotamente religiosos podem recitar Mateus, Marcos, Lucas e Jo o como os quatro primeiros evangelhos do Novo Testamento, e livros como G nesis e xodo incluem algumas das hist rias mais famosas da hist ria humana. O estudo dos evangelhos ap crifos, documentos sobre a vida ou declara es de Jesus que n o se tornaram parte do Novo Testamento, uma disciplina popular entre os estudiosos que agora enche v rias prateleiras de qualquer biblioteca respeit vel. Apesar da crescente seculariza o da sociedade, parece haver um apetite pela figura hist rica de Jesus. No entanto, menos leitores consideram a quest o de saber se o Antigo Testamento, tamb m conhecido como a B blia Hebraica, "completo", e se na antiguidade havia outros livros al m de G nesis, o xodo ou Ju zes, com diferentes hist rias e caracteres desconhecidos, exclu dos do c non e se perderam nas areias do tempo. A maioria dos leitores sup e que a grande saga de Israel, come ando com as hist rias pastorais dos patriarcas, a epopeia do xodo e a conquista da Terra Prometida, at a corte do rei Davi, uma hist ria compacta, completa e nica. Em sua forma atual, parece come ar do come o, e como tal foi aceito por todos na antiguidade, mas algu m na antiga Israel escreveu outras interpreta es? Recentes descobertas arqueol gicas e textuais revelaram que a produ o liter ria entre o povo de Israel antes da vida de Jesus era muito mais extensa e variada do que se supunha anteriormente. Os primeiros exegetas crist os e judeus estavam cientes de alguns textos cujo status era impreciso. Os livros de Tobias, Macabeus e Judite pertenceram s escrituras sagradas de Israel ou n o? O que aconteceu com certos livros que s o mencionados na B blia, mas n o foram encontrados, como hist rias sobre a corte do rei Davi, os Anais de Salom o, um livro de Jasher, e proeminente o Livro de 1688 de Guerras do Senhor? ? H outro grupo de livros que desperta interesse especial, incluindo uma extensa cole o de escritos judaicos e judaicos-helen sticos que est o dispon veis (alguns em estado fragment rio), mas que por algum motivo foram exclu dos do Antigo Testamento. Alguns foram recuperados ou desenterrados nos ltimos 2.000 anos, enquanto outros permaneceram sob a cust dia de bibliotecas secretas ou her ticas. Entre eles est o o Livro de Enoque, o Livro de 688 de Jubileu, o Apocalipse de Mois s, e muitos outros. Apesar de n o ter sido admitido como c none, muitas das suas doutrinas permearam na cultura popular, mesmo na antiguidade, incluindo-se entre os primeiros crist os. A rebeli o dos anjos maus liderados por Satan s, o castigo para os pecadores no vale dos mortos, o conceito de um Messias que iria morrer por seu povo, e a cren a na ressurrei o dos m rtires com a restitui o literal dos seus corpos mutilados s o ideias que surgiu em livros ap crifos do antigo testamento. Essas cren as n o s o encontradas na B blia hebraica. Que o Antigo Testamento n o era um produto acabado na poca do Segundo Templo (500 aC-70 dC) e que havia mais livros em circula o pode ser estabelecido considerando que a literatura ap crifa judaica citada no Novo Testamento. A Ep stola de Judas menciona uma luta entre o diabo e um arcanjo pela alma de Mois s, um epis dio n o encontrado no Pentateuco. O autor da ep stola que est citando de Enoque, um ap crifo livro do antigo testamento, ou possivelmente da ascens o de Mois s, que o autor de Judas considerado como autoritativo.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"'Tis late night in Bavaria, and all through the villageThe grownups are drunk, full of beer and such swillage;While children a-tremble, hide deep in their beds, Fearful the Krampus will rip off their heads." - Ann Hart, "Krampusnacht" (2016) "Christmas is the most important holiday of the year. After the corresponding days that exalt the national pride of each country, such as Independence Day in the United States, Victory Day in Russia, or Bastille Day in France, it's December 25 that articulates the life, the work and the economy in much of the world, including many non-Christian countries. Since ancient times, the beginning of winter has been the occasion for most people to eat, drink, dance, and get together to beat the drum and take a break. One of the aspects of Christmas that is most famous is Santa Claus, a mythological figure with many monikers, such as Kris Kringle, Father Christmas, and Papai Noel, among others. Pop culture enthusiasts know to trace Santa's roots to Saint Nicholas, and it's widely accepted that Coke manufactured the contemporary image of Santa embraced by the world today. On both counts, they are only partially correct, because in reality, Santa is a colorful amalgamation of different figures who appear in various countries' folk stories across a wide range of centuries. Though Santa had many influences, his most famous is St. Nicholas, a fiercely religious philanthropist who dedicated his life to helping the disadvantaged. He was not just a beloved bishop, but a fierce defender of the faith who remained undaunted in the face of persecution. To brand him a pious and God-fearing individual would be a massive understatement - indeed, he was, to those around him, the definition of a walking divinity, and an unrivaled miracle-worker sent straight from Heaven. After Nicholas of Myra's death, December 6 became his feast day, and over the centuries, children anticipated his appearance with gifts. However, other children, particularly those of the mischievous sort, trembled under their covers on December 6, because they could no tlook forward to tinkling sleigh bells or belly-shaking laughs. Instead, they feared the disconcerting sounds of heavy breathing, guttural growls, and rattling chains, all of which came from the terrifying Krampus. Despite the best efforts of the Catholic Church and other conservative groups, Krampus is in the midst of a major Renaissance, penetrating not only modern literature, but even becoming a fixture of pop culture. This is evidenced by the creature's recent starring roles in the films Krampus, Night of the Krampus, and Mother Krampus, and its cameos in such TV shows and animations as Grimm, Supernatural, American Dad, and Venture Brothers. Krampus: The History and Legacy of the Mythological Figure Who Punishes Children during the Christmas Season examines the pagan and Christian influences of the Yuletide villain, and dives into the riveting and frightening history behind the creature. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Krampus like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"As soon as I arrived in the Indies, on the first Island which I found, I took some of the natives by force in order that they might learn and might give me information of whatever there is in these parts." - Christopher ColumbusOn October 12, 1492, one of the most important "first contacts" of the modern era was made when three ships of Spanish origin approached the island archipelago now known as the Bahamas, cautiously dropping anchor as the captain of the fleet gazed across to what he assumed was the coast of India. According to the popular version of the story, amazed at the sight of ships and men of such unfamiliar appearance, the native people of the island plunged into the clear waters of the western Atlantic, expertly swimming or aboard dugout canoes, and came out to greet the strangers. In all probability, the meeting was much more cautious and incremental, but the idea that these innocent people, raised in a tropical Eden, might embrace with such open enthusiasm their own destruction is picturesque, and no doubt appeals to contemporary perceptions. By whatever means one might choose to view it, this meeting of cultures certainly did mark the beginning of a bold new chapter in the history of Europe, and the beginning of the end of an ancient race of native people occupying a vast new continent. The entries into Christopher Columbus' log as he recorded his first encounters with the indigenous people of the "Indies" are very telling. The island people arrived alongside his ships, offering humble gifts that Columbus described as "parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks' bells." These were the Ta nos people, or the "Arawaks" as they would come to be known, and Columbus described them as "well built...with good bodies and handsome features." This description, while deceptively simple, had a chilling implication, because Columbus was not taking note of these facts out of idle interest but in terms of how best to exploit them. As the natives offered up gifts, and the open hand of friendship, and by implication the freedom of their islands, Columbus remarked simply on their primitive appearance and primaeval technology, and how easy they would be to overcome. He noted, "They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron. Their spears are made of cane. They would make fine servants. With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want." What Columbus wanted in the first instance was gold, and he was quick to observe the small items of gold jewelry worn by his visitors, which alerted him immediately to the fact that there was gold to be found somewhere on these islands. To get to the bottom of it, Columbus would waste no time. Thus, a chain of events was set in motion that would permanently affect Western Civilization. The Arawak: The History and Legacy of the Indigenous Natives in South America and the Caribbean examines the culture and history of the indigenous groups, and what happened when they came into contact with the Europeans. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the Arawak like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingThe history of California is one that witnessed the rise and fall of several nations and peoples. From the first natives to settle the fertile lands to the encroaching foreigners from the south, east, west, and north, the land that eventually became the Golden State received them all. From across oceans, mountains, plains, and deserts, people came to take advantage of the region's natural resources. In the mid-19th century, the battles would culminate with a young republic claiming the land in its endeavor to stretch from sea to shining sea. Given that Americans were still mostly on the East Coast, the early settlers and prospectors who came west would find a land rich in resources and people but without the means and ability to properly tap those resources. Thus, the land would change hands several times, with the natives stuck in the middle, as they so often were in colonial struggles. One of the most important and memorable events of America's westward push across the frontier came with the discovery of gold in the lands that became California in January 1848. Located thousands of miles away from the country's power centers on the east coast at the time, the announcement came a month before the Mexican-American War had ended, and among the very few Americans that were near the region at the time, many of them were Army soldiers who were participating in the war and garrisoned there. San Francisco was still best known for being a Spanish military and missionary outpost during the colonial era, and only a few hundred called it home. Mexico's independence, and its possession of those lands, had come only a generation earlier. Everything changed almost literally overnight. While the Mexican-American War technically concluded with a treaty in February 1848, the announcement brought an influx of an estimated 90,000 "Forty-Niners" to the region in 1849, hailing from other parts of America and even as far away as Asia. All told, an estimated 300,000 people would come to California over the next few years, as men dangerously trekked thousands of miles in hopes of making a fortune, and in a span of months, San Francisco's population exploded, making it one of the first mining boomtowns to truly spring up in the West. This was a pattern that would repeat itself across the West anytime a mineral discovery was made, from the Southwest and Tombstone to the Dakotas and Deadwood. Of course, that was made possible by the collective memory of the original California gold rush. Despite the mythology and the romantic portrayals that helped make the California Gold Rush, most of the individuals who came to make a fortune struck out instead. The gold rush was a boon to business interests, which ensured important infrastructure developments like the railroad and the construction of westward paths, but ultimately, it also meant that big business reaped most of the profits associated with mining the gold. While the Forty-Niners are often remembered for panning gold out of mountain streams, it required advanced mining technology for most to make a fortune. Nevertheless, the California Gold Rush became an emblem of the American Dream, and the notion that Americans could obtain untold fortunes regardless of their previous social status. As historian H. W. Brands said of the impact the gold rush had on Americans at the time, "The old American Dream ... was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin's 'Poor Richard'... of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck... it] became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter's Mill."

A dinastia carol ngia, que esculpiu um grande imp rio na Europa de 750-887, inaugurou um per odo importante no in cio da Idade M dia. Os carol ngios eram vistos como os sucessores da Roma Antiga no Ocidente e, embora procurassem restabelecer a gl ria da antiguidade, hoje s o lembrados por efetivamente fundarem os estados que se tornariam a Fran a e a Alemanha. Os carol ngios tamb m s o creditados com a cria o do primeiro Renascimento, o Renascimento Carol ngio, s culos antes do Renascimento italiano. Muitos dos grandes cl ssicos latinos sobrevivem hoje por causa das c pias feitas durante este per odo. Al m disso, as revis es feitas no roteiro escrito neste momento tornaram os textos mais f ceis de ler, tanto que a maioria dessas mudan as permanece no sistema moderno de escrita. Os carol ngios viveram em um momento no tempo em que viram que a antiguidade era vista como digna de ser preservada, mas tamb m procuraram adapt -la aos tempos, preparando o terreno para muitos aspectos do que se tornaria o mundo moderno. Ningu m era mais importante para trazer isso do que Carlos Magno, o homem mais famoso da Idade M dia, e provavelmente o mais influente. Com a morte de seu pai, Pepino, o Breve, em 768, Carlos Magno tornou-se rei dos francos, e ele passou a criar um dos maiores imp rios europeus desde o colapso de Roma. Atrav s de suas conquistas na Europa Ocidental e It lia, Carlos Magno tornou-se o primeiro Sacro Imperador Romano depois de uma famosa coroa o imperial pelo Papa Le o III. Ao tornar-se o primeiro Sacro Imperador Romano, Carlos Magno estabeleceu essencialmente a nova ordem no continente europeu, influenciando diretamente a forma como a pol tica e a realeza europeias prosseguiram nos s culos vindouros. Como que para demonstrar o qu o grande ele era na vida, Carlos Magno era numerado Carlos I na Alemanha, na Fran a e no Sacro Imp rio Romano. Carlos Magno tamb m visto como tendo trazido a Renascen a carol ngia, um renascimento da arte, religi o e cultura atrav s da Igreja Cat lica. Isso ajudou a estabelecer uma cultura europeia uniforme, ajudando Carlos Magno a conquistar o t tulo de "Pai da Europa". Depois da Segunda Guerra Mundial, quando a Fran a e a Alemanha estavam em busca de um terreno comum, Carlos Magno seria muitas vezes considerado uma for a unificadora entre os povos que tantas vezes haviam sido inimigos. O Imp rio Carol ngio: A Hist ria e o legado dos governantes francos que unificaram a maior parte da Europa e estabeleceram o Sacro Imp rio Romano na Idade M dia perfilam os governantes que ajudaram a trazer a Europa moderna e a hist ria de seu imp rio. Juntamente com fotos de pessoas importantes, lugares e eventos, voc aprender sobre os Carol ngios como nunca antes.

*Includes pictures*Includes accountsDespite the fact that the Civil War began over 150 years ago, it remains one of the most widely discussed topics in America today, with Americans arguing over its causes, reenacting its famous battles, and debating which general was better than others. Americans continue to be fascinated by the Civil War icons who made the difference between victory and defeat in the war's great battles. The most famous attack of the Civil War was also one of its most fateful and fatal. Pickett's Charge, the climactic assault on the final day of the Battle of Gettysburg, has become the American version of the Charge of the Light Brigade, and it is one of the most famous events of the entire Civil War. Having been unable to break the Army of the Potomac's lines on the left and right flank during Day 2 of the Battle of Gettysburg, Confederate Army of Northern Virginia commander Robert E. Lee decided to make a thrust at the center of the Union's line with about 15,000 men spread out over three divisions. The charge required marching across an open field for about a mile, with the Union artillery holding high ground on all sides of the incoming Confederates. Aware of the insanity of sending 15,000 men hurtling into all the Union artillery, Lee planned to use the Confederate artillery to try to knock out the Union artillery ahead of time. Although old friend William Pendleton was the artillery chief, the artillery cannonade would be supervised by Edward Porter Alexander, Longstreet's chief artillerist, who would have to give the go-ahead to the charging infantry because they were falling under Longstreet's command. Alexander later noted that Longstreet was so disturbed and dejected about ordering the attack that at one point he tried to make Alexander order the infantry forward, essentially doing Longstreet's dirty work for him. Unfortunately for Porter Alexander and the Confederates, the sheer number of cannons belched so much smoke that they had trouble gauging how effective the shells were. As it turned out, most of the artillery was overshooting the target, landing in the rear of the Union line. Reluctant to order the charge, Longstreet commanded Porter Alexander to order the timing for the charge. As Longstreet and Alexander anticipated, the charge was an utter disaster, incurring a nearly 50% casualty rate and failing to break the Union line. The Charge of the Light Brigade is the most famous British cavalry charge in history, possibly also eclipsing the renown of any other mounted attack conducted by the armed forces of other nations in the general imagination. This cavalry action is certainly remembered far more vividly than the 1854 Battle of Balaclava during which it occurred, and even the wider Crimean War that led to the battle. Of course, the prominence of the Charge in popular and historical memory is due primarily to Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem describing the events of that distant late October afternoon. The bearded Poet Laureate crafted a powerful, gripping poetic narrative that fixed the encounter firmly in both the popular imagination and in the English literary oeuvre. Millions of people who know nothing else of the Crimean War between Great Britain and the Russian Empire are familiar with Tennyson's memorable verses: Powerful as this vision of buffoonish commanders leading soldiers infused with ant-like obedience may be in the world of poetry, considerable documentation still exists which at least partially refutes such an interpretation. These documents, recently revisited by a handful of historians, greatly diminish the role of upper-echelon mistakes in causing the Charge. They restore agency and initiative to the ordinary British soldiers, highlighting them as fierce, independent-minded, and energetic actors in their own right, who very nearly changed the outcome

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"You say to your soldier, 'Do this' and he does it. But I am obliged to say to the American, 'This is why you ought to do this' and then he does it." - attributed to Baron von Steuben By the time the Revolutionary War started, military confrontations between the world powers had become so common that combat was raised to the status of a fine art, consuming a large portion of time for adolescent males in training and comprising a sizeable component of the economy. Weaponry was developed to a degree of quality not accessible to most North Americans, and European aristocrats were reared in the mastery of swordsmanship with an emphasis on the saber for military use. Likewise, the cavalry, buoyed by a tradition of expert horsemanship and saddle-based combat, was a fighting force largely beyond reach for colonists, which meant that fighting on horses was an undeveloped practice in the fledgling Continental Army, and the American military did not yet fully comprehend the value of cavalry units. Few sword masters were to find their way to North America in time for the war, and the typical American musket was a fair hunting weapon rather than a military one. Even the foot soldier knew little of European military discipline. German participation is historically noted for the Hessians, mercenary soldiers recruited in whole companies by Britain, whose standing army featured relatively low numbers when the American Revolution began. However, other Germans noted for their mastery of the science of war sided with the colonies, and among the most essential European contributors to the American cause turned out to be a Prussian officer of German descent. Though he hailed from dubious lineage, he enjoyed the full title of Baron Friedrich Wilhelm Rudolf Gerhard Augustin von Steuben, and when he came to fight in the Revolution, his purportedly lustrous military credentials could not be accurately verified by the American liaisons who were in contact with him. Like the Marquis de Lafayette before him, von Steuben came to Washington's army via the recommendation of Benjamin Franklin, who hoped to use their appointments to curry political favor internationally. Furthermore, the letters sent with von Steuben to America underwent such upgrades of prestige and glamorization as to frame his introduction as a national deceit. Despite the wavering attention paid by the colonial representatives to his biography, von Steuben may well have contributed more to the rebel victory than any other single presence on the American continent. After another disappointing year of defeats in 1777, Washington's 11,000 men entered winter quarters at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania, about 20 miles outside of occupied Philadelphia. His army had repeatedly faced a lack of discipline and chronic disorganization, and Congress began to consider replacing Washington, who was understandably devastated. Making matters worse, the winter was unusually harsh, leading to an estimated 2,000 or so deaths in camp from diseases. Gouverneur Morris would later call the soldiers at Valley Forge a "skeleton of an army...in a naked, starving condition, out of health, out of spirits." However, it was at Valley Forge that Washington truly forged his army, most notably by implementing a more rigorous training program for his troops that was led by von Steuben, who had fought with Frederick the Great. Despite speaking little English, von Steuben went about drafting a drill manual in French, and he personally presided over training drills and military parades. With the help of von Steuben, the Continental Army left Valley Forge in the spring of 1778 a more disciplined army than ever before, and the worst of Washington's failures were behind him. Von Steuben would continue to serve with the Continental Army through the end of the war.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingThe history of California is one that witnessed the rise and fall of several nations and peoples. From the first natives to settle the fertile lands to the encroaching foreigners from the south, east, west, and north, the land that eventually became the Golden State received them all. From across oceans, mountains, plains, and deserts, people came to take advantage of the region's natural resources. In the mid-19th century, the battles would culminate with a young republic claiming the land in its endeavor to stretch from sea to shining sea. Given that Americans were still mostly on the East Coast, the early settlers and prospectors who came west would find a land rich in resources and people but without the means and ability to properly tap those resources. Thus, the land would change hands several times, with the natives stuck in the middle, as they so often were in colonial struggles. One of the most important and memorable events of America's westward push across the frontier came with the discovery of gold in the lands that became California in January 1848. Located thousands of miles away from the country's power centers on the east coast at the time, the announcement came a month before the Mexican-American War had ended, and among the very few Americans that were near the region at the time, many of them were Army soldiers who were participating in the war and garrisoned there. San Francisco was still best known for being a Spanish military and missionary outpost during the colonial era, and only a few hundred called it home. Mexico's independence, and its possession of those lands, had come only a generation earlier. Everything changed almost literally overnight. While the Mexican-American War technically concluded with a treaty in February 1848, the announcement brought an influx of an estimated 90,000 "Forty-Niners" to the region in 1849, hailing from other parts of America and even as far away as Asia. All told, an estimated 300,000 people would come to California over the next few years, as men dangerously trekked thousands of miles in hopes of making a fortune, and in a span of months, San Francisco's population exploded, making it one of the first mining boomtowns to truly spring up in the West. This was a pattern that would repeat itself across the West anytime a mineral discovery was made, from the Southwest and Tombstone to the Dakotas and Deadwood. Of course, that was made possible by the collective memory of the original California gold rush. When it became a state, California faced many problems, some of which were national issues, and others that had a Californian flavor. At the same time, the state never lost its place in the Union, pitching in whenever and however it could as part of the nation. Though it might have done things its own way, the fact that California has always handled problems as only California could be what has set it apart from other states. California: The History and Legacy of the Land Before and After It Joined the United States examines the long and winding history of the region. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about California like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingSome have called the Crimean War history's most unnecessary war, and while it is misunderstood, often overlooked, and sometimes ignored, it also involved many of the 19th century's major powers, namely Russia, Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria, as well as men from lands these powers would call their empires. It was a war bridging the old with the new, mixing Napoleonic fighting styles and modern weapons, old world diplomacy and modern communications, and the traditional rules of war and modern death tolls. The conflict is proclaimed either as the last war of one era or the first of another, with deaths numbering over 775,000, the breaking and strengthening of traditional alliances, and setting precedents for conflicts to come. As historian A. J. P. Taylor put it, "In some sense the Crimean war was predestined and had deep-seated causes. Neither Nicholas nor Napoleon III] nor the British government could retreat in the conflict for prestige once it was launched. Nicholas needed a subservient Turkey for the sake of Russian security; Napoleon needed success for the sake of his domestic position; the British government needed an independent Turkey for the security of the Eastern Mediterranean... Mutual fear, not mutual aggression, caused the Crimean War." It was certainly a harbinger of the kind of European war that would occur when various alliances came into conflict with each other. The Crimean War was particularly interesting due to the giant political standoff that preceded it, the geopolitical changes at work, and the balance of power at the time. On a broader geopolitical scope, the fact that France and Britain sided with the Ottomans against Russia highlighted concerns over the growing threat represented by Russian ambitions in the Black Sea. Russia's reaction to the crisis was also a sign of the importance of this area, a key to Moscow's ability to project its power outside of its natural area of influence. The recent war in Ukraine and Russian intervention in Syria, which began by the sending of ships from Sebastopol to Tartus, may also be a good reminder of the strategic value of this region. The actual trigger to the crisis - though the war had much deeper roots - was also significant, underscoring growing rivalries over the holy sites in Jerusalem and Bethlehem and the emergence of religious tensions there. Tensions between France and Russia indeed increased years before the war after a series of incidents surrounding the Christian holy sites in Palestine. Local disputes between the Roman Christians and Orthodox worshipers often broke out in front of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre - the Ottomans even had to place soldiers in front of the site during the holidays. These tensions, along with the growing number of Russian visitors, resulted in growing anger and concerns amongst the French Christians, who argued that France had been the protector of the holy sites ever since the Crusades, a right that was confirmed by the Capitulations treaty of 1740. The Russians, however, maintained that they had been the protectors of all Christians within the Ottoman Empire since the signing of the Kuchuk Kainarji treaty in 1774. While very few territorial changes were made, the conflict led to the demilitarization of the Black Sea, marking the decline of Russian influence there. It also extended the life of the Ottoman Empire, occasionally referred to by that point as the "sick man of Europe." But perhaps most importantly from a geopolitical perspective, the war contributed to the crumbling of the precarious European balance of power. War between Austria and France in Italy and the rise of a new central power during the war of unification led by Otto Von Bismarck destroyed the status quo.

El estudio de los evangelios ap crifos -relatos de la vida o dichos de Jes s que no entraron al Nuevo Testamento- es una disciplina popular entre los acad micos que llena ya varios estantes de cualquier biblioteca respetable. A pesar de la creciente secularizaci n de la sociedad, parece haber un apetito por la figura hist rica de Jes s. Mucho menos lectores de estudios b blicos consideran la cuesti n de si el Antiguo Testamento, conocido tambi n como Biblia Hebrea, est "completo", es decir, si hubo otros libros aparte del G nesis, el xodo y Jueces, con distintas historias y personajes desconocidos, que quedaron excluidos de la colecci n y perdidos en las arenas del tiempo. La mayor parte de los lectores da por hecho que la gran saga de Israel, comenzando por los relatos pastoriles de los patriarcas, la epopeya del xodo y la conquista de la Tierra Prometida, hasta la corte del rey David, es una historia compacta, completa, nica, que desde un principio estuvo en su forma actual, y que como tal fue aceptada de manera un nime en la antig edad. Escribi alguien en el antiguo Israel otras versiones de las conocidas historias de la escuela dominical? Que la Biblia Hebrea o Antiguo Testamento (AT) no era una entidad definitivamente cerrada en la poca del segundo templo (500 AC - 70 DC) y que hab a m s libros que los que contiene, se puede comprobar f cilmente al considerar que el Nuevo Testamento cita literatura ap crifa. La carta de Judas menciona una pelea entre el diablo y un arc ngel por el alma de Mois s que no se encuentra en el Pentateuco: el autor de esa ep stola est citando el libro de Enoc, ap crifo del Antiguo Testamento, o posiblemente la Ascensi n de Mois s, que el autor de Judas consideraba como textos autorizados. El ap stol Pablo cita en dos ocasiones del ap crifo conocido como Vida de Ad n y Eva en su segunda carta a los corintios, y el Evangelio de Mateo se refiere a una profec a escrita, desconocida hasta la fecha, en el sentido de que el mes as "ser llamado nazareno". Una de las historias m s extra as y llamativas derivada de los ap crifos hebreos es que Eva no fue la primera mujer que Dios cre . Hubo otra antes que ella. Su nombre es mencionado una sola vez en el libro de Isa as, pero el profeta cubre la leyenda con un velo de silencio. Los libros perdidos del Viejo Testamento repasa la historia y las ideas de los libros excluidos del canon hebreo, los principales personajes y los descubrimientos que m s han influido en la disciplina de los estudios b blicos. Jes s de Nazareth fue un maestro jud o de origen rural que vivi en el primer tercio del siglo I de nuestra era. Durante una celebraci n de la Pascua en Jerusal n fue condenado a la pena de muerte -espec ficamente crucifixi n- por la autoridad imperial de Roma, que en ese momento ten a el control de su pa s. Muchas cosas m s podr an decirse de su vida, pero aparte de este peque o resumen y quiz uno o dos detalles m s, ser a complicado que todos los acad micos estudiosos de la Biblia levantaran su mano en se al de acuerdo. Sin embargo, la literatura escrita en los siguientes 250 a os despu s de la muerte de este predicador jud o -relativamente desconocido en vida- fue abundante, casi estridente. Cu ntas personas dejaron por escrito vida o dichos de Jes s de Nazareth? La persona poco versada en estos temas responder que cuatro: los autores de los evangelios de Mateo, Marcos, Lucas y Juan, libros que se encuentran en el Nuevo Testamento. Pero para muchos resulta una sorpresa saber que los evangelios que aparecen en la Biblia no son sino una peque a muestra de los que se produjeron. Desde el principio, la producci n literaria de quienes consideraban a Jes s como Mes as fue abundante.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingThe Lewis and Clark Expedition, notwithstanding its merits as a feat of exploration, was also the first tentative claim on the vast interior and the western seaboard of North America by the United States. It set in motion the great movement west that began almost immediately with the first commercial overland expedition funded by John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company and would continue with the establishment of the Oregon Trail and California Trail. That quest would reach its ultimate expression and its conclusion in 1869, when the last spike was driven into the Union Pacific Railroad. The railroad system being laid down across the United States during the 1860s remain the very epitome of contradiction. On the one hand, it was a triumph of engineering skills over thousands of miles of rough terrain, but on the other hand, it drained the natural resources in those places nearly dry. It "civilized" the American West by making it easier for women and children to travel there, but it dispossessed Native American civilizations that had lived there for generations. It made the careers of many men and destroyed the lives from many others. It was bold and careless, ingenious and cruel, gentle and violent, and it enriched some and bankrupted others. In short, it was the best and worst of 19th century America in action. As settlers pushed west and the Gold Rush brought an influx of Americans to California, the need for something like the Transcontinental Railroad was apparent to the government in the 1850s, and with the help of private companies, government officials conducted all kinds of land surveys in order to plot a course. Of course, even once routes chosen, the backbreaking work itself had to be done to connect railroad lines across the span of nearly 2,000 miles. This required an incredible amount of manpower, often consisting of unskilled laborers engaging in dangerous work, and the financial resources poured into it were also extreme. J. O. Wilder, a Central Pacific-Southern Pacific employee, described a typical scene: "The Chinese were as steady, hard-working a set of men as could be found. With the exception of a few whites at the west end of Tunnel No. 6, the laboring force was entirely composed of Chinamen with white foremen and a 'boss/translator'. A single foreman (often Irish) with a gang of 30 to 40 Chinese men generally constituted the force at work at each end of a tunnel; of these, 12 to 15 men worked on the heading, and the rest on the bottom, removing blasted material. When a gang was small or the men were needed elsewhere, the bottoms were worked with fewer men or stopped so as to keep the headings going." Ultimately, the projects were considered so important that work on them progressed throughout the Civil War, and it took the better part of the 1860s before a grand system of rail lines was finally completed. Once they were in place, they proved a boon to building up the American West, especially the Southwest and Pacific Northwest in places like Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Oregon and Washington. The Union Pacific: The History of America's Most Famous Railroad Company and Its Role in the Transcontinental Railroad examines how the Union Pacific was established and went on to become one of the most important companies in North America. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about the Union Pacific like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes quotes and contemporary accounts *Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingVeteran bootlegger. Prolific bank robber. Kidnapper extraordinaire. Ruthless criminal mastermind. With a nickname as hardcore as George "Machine Gun" Kelly's, it should come as no surprise that such terms are frequently associated with him. 86 years may have come and gone since his death, but this Depression-era mobster's name and legacy are still as relevant as ever. Not only has this legendary nickname been adopted by a popular rapper, he remains the subject of various articles, books, songs, films, and other pop culture mediums. Of course, given his fame and notoriety, it's always fair to ask how much truth there is to the riveting, action-packed tales surrounding his short, memorable life of crime. Machine Gun Kelly: The Notorious Life and Crimes of the Depression Era Gangster profiles how he became one of America's most famous outlaws, and the daring crimes that made him so feared. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Machine Gun Kelly like never before.

A B blia o livro mais famoso do mundo, lido por um n mero incont vel de crist os e outros ao longo dos s culos. Mesmo aqueles que n o s o crist os ou remotamente religiosos podem recitar Mateus, Marcos, Lucas e Jo o como os quatro primeiros evangelhos do Novo Testamento, e livros como G nesis e xodo incluem algumas das hist rias mais famosas da hist ria humana. O estudo dos evangelhos ap crifos, documentos sobre a vida ou declara es de Jesus que n o se tornaram parte do Novo Testamento, uma disciplina popular entre os estudiosos que agora enche v rias prateleiras de qualquer biblioteca respeit vel. Apesar da crescente seculariza o da sociedade, parece haver um apetite pela figura hist rica de Jesus. No entanto, menos leitores consideram a quest o de saber se o Antigo Testamento, tamb m conhecido como a B blia Hebraica, "completo", e se na antiguidade havia outros livros al m de G nesis, o xodo ou Ju zes, com diferentes hist rias e caracteres desconhecidos, exclu dos do c non e se perderam nas areias do tempo. A maioria dos leitores sup e que a grande saga de Israel, come ando com as hist rias pastorais dos patriarcas, a epopeia do xodo e a conquista da Terra Prometida, at a corte do rei Davi, uma hist ria compacta, completa e nica. Em sua forma atual, parece come ar do come o, e como tal foi aceito por todos na antiguidade, mas algu m na antiga Israel escreveu outras interpreta es? Que o Antigo Testamento n o era um produto acabado na poca do Segundo Templo (500 aC-70 dC) e que havia mais livros em circula o pode ser estabelecido considerando que a literatura ap crifa judaica citada no Novo Testamento. A Ep stola de Judas menciona uma luta entre o diabo e um arcanjo pela alma de Mois s, um epis dio n o encontrado no Pentateuco. O autor da ep stola que est citando de Enoque, um ap crifo livro do antigo testamento, ou possivelmente da ascens o de Mois s, que o autor de Judas considerado como autoritativo. O ap stolo Paulo cita duas vezes o livro ap crifo conhecido como a Vida de Ad o e Eva em sua segunda carta aos Cor ntios, e o Evangelho de Mateus cita uma profecia escrita, desconhecida at hoje, de que o messias seria chamado de Nazareno. "Uma das hist rias mais enigm ticas e populares derivadas dos ap crifos judaicos que Eva n o foi a primeira mulher criada por Deus; seu nome mencionado apenas uma vez no livro de Isa as, mas o profeta cobre a lenda com um v u de sil ncio. Mesmo hoje em dia, nem todos os ramos da igreja crist concordam sobre quais escritos devem ser considerados "can nicos" e quais s o "ap crifos", embora alguns textos ap crifos frequentemente tenham v nculos not veis com livros considerados "can nicos". Independentemente disso, os Ap crifos do Novo Testamento referem-se a textos escritos por crist os primitivos que n o foram inclu dos na B blia usados pelos principais ramos do cristianismo hoje. Esses textos variam em assunto, com alguns sendo relatos de Jesus, outros sendo sobre a natureza de Deus, e ainda outros sendo relatos e ensinamentos dos ap stolos de Jesus. O que os torna fascinantes n o apenas a hist ria por tr s da qual eles s o considerados n o-can nicos, mas o que eles nos dizem sobre a Igreja primitiva e o cristianismo primitivo. Al m disso, eles oferecem uma vis o sobre quais fontes foram usadas para escrev -las e se elas compartilhavam as mesmas fontes que os textos que comp em a B blia hoje. Dada a sua import ncia hist rica e religiosa, ainda h um debate acirrado sobre a autenticidade de muitos desses textos.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingIn terms of geopolitics, perhaps the most seminal event of the Middle Ages was the successful Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453. The city had been an imperial capital as far back as the 4th century, when Constantine the Great shifted the power center of the Roman Empire there, effectively establishing two almost equally powerful halves of antiquity's greatest empire. Constantinople would continue to serve as the capital of the Byzantine Empire even after the Western half of the Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century. Naturally, the Ottoman Empire would also use Constantinople as the capital of its empire after their conquest effectively ended the Byzantine Empire, and thanks to its strategic location, it has been a trading center for years and remains one today under the Turkish name of Istanbul. In the wake of taking Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire would spend the next few centuries expanding its size, power, and influence, bumping up against Eastern Europe and becoming one of the world's most important geopolitical players. It was a rise that would not truly start to wane until the 19th century, and the Ottomans would maintain their empire until the end of World War I. Osman I, who is now recognized as being the first leader of the Ottoman Empire before dying in 1323 or 1324, is one of history's most important leaders, so it is ironic that little is known about his life. Historians have searched in vain for a single historical record dating from his reign, despite the fact he was the founder of the Ottoman Empire, a state which conquered Asia Minor, most of the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans before reaching the very walls of Vienna. In the struggle between Christian and Islamic powers, it was the first state to challenge hegemony over Europe since the Umayyad Caliphate was defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. Even after its demise, the politics of the Balkan states is very much influenced by the Ottoman past, and Muslim populations remain in the European lands once occupied by the Ottomans. The Middle East's politics and conflicts trace back to the dissolution of the empire, and in Turkey, the Ottoman legacy remains a topic of national debate. President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has declared that modern Turkey is the "continuation" of the Ottoman Empire, arguing that Turkey needs to return to its Islamic roots. While there may be no contemporary records about Osman, plenty of evidence exists about his deeds, the times he lived in, and Ottoman society under his leadership. Accounts of his life wEre written more than 100 years after his death, and his birthdate is unknown, though he must have been born in the middle of the 13th century. Even his name is not entirely clear; "Osman" suggests an Arabic origin, but he was a Turk and his name was probably Atman or Ataman. This is certainly how the contemporary Greek historian Pachymeres (1242-c.1310) renders the name, and it is possible that Atman adopted the more prestigious name Osman later in life. Most importantly, according to tradition he was the son of Ertugrul, leader of the Kayi tribe of the Oghuz Turks. Osman I: The Life and Legacy of the Ottoman Empire's First Sultan chronicles his life and accomplishments, and the massive impact he had on the Ottomans and the world around him. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Osman I like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes ancient accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAfrica may have given rise to the first human beings, and Egypt probably gave rise to the first great civilizations, which continue to fascinate modern societies across the globe nearly 5,000 years later. From the Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria to the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Ancient Egyptians produced several wonders of the world, revolutionized architecture and construction, created some of the world's first systems of mathematics and medicine, and established language and art that spread across the known world. With world-famous leaders like King Tut and Cleopatra, it's no wonder that today's world has so many Egyptologists. What makes the accomplishments of the Ancient Egyptians all the more remarkable is that Egypt was historically a place of great political turbulence. Its position made it both valuable and vulnerable to tribes across the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and Ancient Egypt had no shortage of its own internecine warfare. Its most famous conquerors would come from Europe, with Alexander the Great laying the groundwork for the Hellenic Ptolemy line and the Romans extinguishing that line after defeating Cleopatra and driving her to suicide. One of the primary reasons why modern scholars know so much about Egyptian history is due to many monuments found up and down the Nile. Although some of the tombs built on the west bank of the Nile River have suffered a fair amount of wind damage and all of the great monuments have endured the ravages of time, they are amazingly well-preserved, thanks both to Egypt's arid climate and good workmanship. The Egyptian monument builders were truly a class above their contemporaries in terms of their trade, which was helped by the fact that they worked with the more permanent materials of sandstone and limestone, unlike Mesopotamian builders who were forced to primarily work with mud and brick. Of course, even the finest made Egyptian granite statues and limestone temples could do little to stop population explosions and changing weather patterns, which combined to bury most pharaonic era monuments in the Egyptian Delta. Today, the Delta is the most densely populated portion of the already densely populated country and is located on a high water table that is subject to routine flooding, just as it was in ancient times. Throughout the millennia since the pharaohs ruled Egypt, peasants have routinely used remnants of ancient monuments for new housing structures, implements, and even fertilizer, and the situation is even more pronounced closer to the Mediterranean coast. Cities that once were major ports where the various branches of the Nile River flowed into the Mediterranean are now miles off the coastline, under hundreds of feet of water. The existence of these cities was known thanks to Egyptian and Greek historical sources, but their locations could never be positively identified until the advent of modern marine technology. In 1996, adventurer and scholar Franck Goddio identified what he believed was a major site just off the Mediterranean coastline in the Abu Qir Bay, east of Alexandria. It turned out Goddio had discovered the ancient city of Heracleion, which was part of a larger metropolitan area that included the cities of Canopus and Naucratis. Although there is still much work to be done, the discovery has already yielded vital information about Heracleion's importance as a center of trade and religion from the 7th century BCE until the 8th century CE. The Lost City of Heracleion: The History of the Ancient Egyptian City Now Underwater in the Mediterranean examines the history of the city, and what life was like there. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Heracleion like never before.