Charles River

*Includes pictures*Includes quotes"Saying nothing...sometimes says the most." - Emily Dickinson Emily Dickinson was very shy and did not have many friends. Instead of visiting people or talking to them, she liked to write letters. She also liked to write poems. Her poems were different than those written by most people. She wrote in very short lines. She also made up her own grammar rules, and used capital letters, periods and commas in strange places. Sometimes she gave her poems titles and sometimes she did not. While she was still alive, she did not share her poetry with many people. Only a few of her poems were published. But when she died, her family found many, many poems they never knew about, and has them printed in books and magazines. When people read her poems, some thought there were some of the best poems ever written. They began teaching her peoms to school children, who still learn some of her work today. Many people who have read her poetry have tried to learn more about her life but Emily Dickenson is a hard person to understand. When she was a child, most girls did not go to school for very long, but Emily finished high school and went to college for a while. Many of her poems are about God and the Christian faith, but she often complained that she found it hard to understand what was going on in churches. She cared very much for the few friends that she had but she did not liked to be hugged or touched. She never got married but often wrote about love and romance. The most important thing about Emily's poems was that she used them to talk about how she felt at times when she could not share her feelings with other people. This book is the story of how Emily Dickinson lived her life. It also has pictures of her, her family and friends, and important places in her life.

*Includes pictures*Includes soldiers' accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingWorld War I, also known in its time as the "Great War" or the "War to End all Wars", was an unprecedented holocaust in terms of its sheer scale. Fought by men who hailed from all corners of the globe, it saw millions of soldiers do battle in brutal assaults of attrition which dragged on for months with little to no respite. Tens of millions of artillery shells and untold hundreds of millions of rifle and machine gun bullets were fired in a conflict that demonstrated man's capacity to kill each other on a heretofore unprecedented scale, and as always, such a war brought about technological innovation at a rate that made the boom of the Industrial Revolution seem stagnant. Naturally, as one of the main belligerents of the war, and arguably the most powerful, Germany led the way in many respects. Between innovation, the scale of manpower, and cutting edge tactics and technology, the Imperial German Army would inflict devastating losses on the enemy, but the war would also prove to be its undoing, even as the seeds of that conflict would lead to far worse a generation later. The Imperial German Army had developed a formidable reputation decades earlier, almost immediately upon the unification of the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1871. Prussia dominated the new Germany, and with that came a strong military tradition and hierarchy. Not surprisingly, German leaders who had such power at their disposal were more than willing to use it, and when Kaiser Wilhelm II was crowned, a monarch with a thirst for foreign adventurism took control of Germany. In the decades before 1914, German politics became increasingly authoritarian and its society militarized. In conjunction with that, as the German Empire wanted to become a Great Power, it induced distrust amongst its rivals. Berlin was arguably the most enthusiastic European capital for a war in 1914, and German leaders enacted the long prepared "Schlieffen Plan" almost immediately. Although the German army advanced rapidly in the early weeks of the First World War, it would meet unexpected resistance from the British and French. Bogged down in the trenches of Flanders, the Germans had more success on the Eastern Front against the Russians, and eventually, after the Tsarist regime was overthrown, they emerged victorious there. By early 1918 though, German society was exhausted by war and starving due to a naval embargo. After a last-ditch offensive in early 1918, the British and French forces, now supported by the Americans, finally achieved some success against the weakening German army. November 1918 brought an armistice, and the punitive victor's justice of the Treaty of Versailles left many former German soldiers angry and resentful moving forward. The legacy of the German army's indecisive defeat would resonate for many when these grievances were stoked by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis less than a generation later. The Imperial German Army: The History and Legacy of Germany's Armed Forces during World War I chronicles the German military in the years after the German Empire's formation and World War I. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Germany's army in World War I like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes ancient accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAfrica may have given rise to the first human beings, and Egypt probably gave rise to the first great civilizations, which continue to fascinate modern societies across the globe nearly 5,000 years later. From the Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria to the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Ancient Egyptians produced several wonders of the world, revolutionized architecture and construction, created some of the world's first systems of mathematics and medicine, and established language and art that spread across the known world. With world-famous leaders like King Tut and Cleopatra, it's no wonder that today's world has so many Egyptologists. In ancient Egypt, cities held political and religious significance, which meant that if the political or religious tides changed, so too could the fortunes of particular cities. Memphis is perhaps the best known of ancient Egypt's cities because it was fortunate enough to be the political capital of the Egyptian state for most of its history. Hundreds of miles to Memphis' south, Thebes became an important city during the Middle Kingdom and its stature grew during the New Kingdom when many of the pharaohs came from there and the national god, Amun, had its cult center in the city. Others cities, such as Tanis and Sais, were important for much shorter periods in Egyptian history. The city of Abju, which was known as Abydus to the Greeks, and later became known simply as "Abydos" had a history that was as long as Memphis', and although its influence on pharaonic culture may not have been as apparent, it was no less profound. The city of Abydos was the most important political city in ancient Egypt's "Archaic" or Early Dynastic Period, which encompassed the first two dynasties of Egyptian history (ca. 3100-2650 BC). All of the kings of the First Dynasty and two of the kings of the Second Dynasty are believed to have resided in the nearby, but as of yet unlocated, city of Thinis and were buried in the necropolis of Abydos, making it one of the holiest sites in early pharaonic history. After the Archaic Period, Abydos lost much of its political influence to Memphis, Thebes, and other cities, but retained its significance by becoming an important religious center. Beginning in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686-2181 BC), the first major temples were built near the city, attracting priests and pilgrims alike, but it was in the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2055-1650 BC) when Abydos became the center of the Osiris cult. As the importance and popularity of Osiris grew throughout Egypt, so too did the city. Several kings in the New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1069 BC) and Late Period built mortuary temples to their own cults and added to the existing monuments to Osiris in order to ensure their immortality and to prove their piousness to their people. Eventually, though, when the Greeks took control of Egypt, the importance of Abydos waned and so too did its size. Abydos: The History and Legacy of the Ancient Egyptian Holy City and Burial Site examines the history of the city, and what life and death were like there. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Abydos like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingRussia has been depicted by the media as a cyberspace boogeyman, a nation of hackers that can and will exploit any and all vulnerabilities of private organizations, government entities, and social media platforms. Over the last 10 years, as hackers all over the world have been mobilized to carry out state agendas, this "nation of hackers" reputation has evolved into something much more serious. The vague notion of "Russian hackers" used to primarily worry CTOs of banks and credit card companies, while merely amusing or fascinating curious people, but today, Russian cyberwarfare keeps military officers, policymakers, and ordinary citizens around the world up at night. From alleged interference in foreign elections to coordinated power outages in Ukraine, numerous large-scale cyber attacks are thought to have been carried out by Russian state agencies and their proxies recently. Certain Western leaders have gone so far as to claim that Russian cyber warfare eclipses even terrorism in threatening global security- in the words of British Army General Sir Nick Carter, Russia "represents the most complex and capable state-based threat to our country since the end of the Cold War." The roots of cyber warfare, cyber espionage, and information warfare in Russia from signals intelligence and industrial espionage date back to the time of the USSR, while modern day information warfare and cyber warfare relate to Russian military operations. This book also looks at World War II's aftermath, signals intelligence and espionage during the Cold War, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and how the resulting chaos cultivated Russia's homegrown hacker talent. Through it all, this book looks at how Russia has interacted with other countries in the cyber domain, especially its former Soviet neighbors and the United States. Whether Russia does indeed eclipse other Western adversaries as the top global security threat, it is undeniably the home to an immensely talented community of hackers, many of whom have expressed willingness to employ their skills to support Russian foreign policy objectives, typically for monetary compensation. And regardless of whether these hackers are directly sponsored by the Russian state, foreign governments, or the intermediaries operating on behalf of the them, the history of Russia's cyber warfare is a fascinating one. Russian Cyber Warfare: The History of Russia's State-Sponsored Attacks across the World details the Russian intelligence groups' efforts to wage cyber warfare online. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Russia's cyber activities like never before.

Alguns chamaram a guerra mais desnecess ria da hist ria da Guerra da Crimeia e, embora seja mal compreendida, muitas vezes negligenciada e s vezes ignorada, ela tamb m envolveu muitas das maiores pot ncias do s culo 19, como R ssia, Gr -Bretanha, Fran a, Imp rio Otomano e ustria. bem como homens de terras que esses poderes chamariam de seus imp rios. Foi uma guerra entre o velho e o novo, misturando estilos de luta e armas modernas napole nicas, a diplomacia do velho mundo e as comunica es modernas, e as regras tradicionais da guerra e do moderno n mero de mortos. O conflito proclamado ou como a ltima guerra de uma era ou a primeira de outra, com um n mero de mortes superior a 775.000, a quebra e o fortalecimento de alian as tradicionais e estabelecendo precedentes para os conflitos que est o por vir. Como disse o historiador AJP Taylor: "Em certo sentido, a guerra da Crimeia foi predestinada e teve causas profundas. Nem Nicolau nem Napole o III] nem o governo brit nico puderam recuar no conflito por prest gio quando este foi lan ado. Nicholas precisava de uma Turquia subserviente em prol da seguran a russa; Napole o precisava de sucesso por causa de sua posi o dom stica; o governo brit nico precisava de uma Turquia independente para a seguran a do Mediterr neo Oriental ... O medo m tuo, n o a agress o m tua, causou a Guerra da Crimeia. "Foi certamente um precursor do tipo de guerra europ ia que ocorreria quando v rias alian as entrassem em conflito umas com as outras. A Guerra da Crimeia foi particularmente interessante devido ao gigantesco impasse pol tico que a precedeu, s mudan as geopol ticas em curso e ao equil brio de poder na poca. Em um mbito geopol tico mais amplo, o fato de que Fran a e Gr -Bretanha ficaram do lado dos otomanos contra a R ssia destacou as preocupa es com a crescente amea a representada pelas ambi es russas no Mar Negro. A rea o da R ssia crise foi tamb m um sinal da import ncia dessa rea, uma chave para a capacidade de Moscou de projetar seu poder fora de sua rea natural de influ ncia. A recente guerra na Ucr nia e a interven o russa na S ria, que come ou com o envio de navios de Sebastopol para Tartus, tamb m pode ser uma boa lembran a do valor estrat gico desta regi o. O verdadeiro gatilho para a crise - embora a guerra tivesse ra zes muito mais profundas - tamb m foi significativo, ressaltando as crescentes rivalidades sobre os locais sagrados em Jerusal m e Bel m e o surgimento de tens es religiosas l . As tens es entre a Fran a e a R ssia aumentaram anos antes da guerra, ap s uma s rie de incidentes envolvendo os locais sagrados crist os na Palestina. As disputas locais entre os crist os romanos e os ortodoxos muitas vezes irromperam em frente Igreja do Santo Sepulcro - os otomanos tiveram que colocar soldados em frente ao local durante os feriados. Essas tens es, juntamente com o crescente n mero de visitantes russos, resultaram em crescente raiva e preocupa o entre os crist os franceses, que argumentavam que a Fran a tinha sido a protetora dos locais sagrados desde as Cruzadas, um direito que foi confirmado pelo tratado de Capitula es de 1740Os russos, no entanto, afirmavam que eles haviam sido os protetores de todos os crist os dentro do Imp rio Otomano desde a assinatura do tratado Kuchuk Kainarji em 1774. Embora poucas mudan as territoriais tenham sido feitas, o conflito levou desmilitariza o do Mar Negro, marcando o decl nio da influ ncia russa no pa s. Tamb m prolongou a vida do Imp rio Otomano, ocasionalmente referido por aquele ponto como o "homem doente da Europa". Mas talvez mais importante do ponto de vista geopol tico, a guerra contribuiu para o desmoronamento do equil brio de poder europeu prec rio. A guerra entre a ustria e a Fran a na It lia e a ascens o de uma nova pot ncia central durante a guerra de unifica o liderada por Otto Von Bismar

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"I don't care who does the electing, so long as I get to do the nominating." - Boss Tweed"It's hard not to admire the skill behind Tweed's system ... The Tweed ring at its height was an engineering marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points: the courts, the legislature, the treasury and the ballot box. Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure: money-laundering, profit sharing and organization." - Kenneth D. AckermanOf all the great cities in the world, few personify their country like New York City. As America's largest city and best known immigration gateway into the country, the Big Apple represents the beauty, diversity and sheer strength of the United States, a global financial center that has enticed people chasing the "American Dream" for centuries. However, for all the promise and opportunities America seemingly held out, and for all of the nostalgia and pride the country's history invokes among Americans today, the simple truth is many never climbed the ladder. One of the few who did was William Magear Tweed, known more widely as Boss Tweed, one of the most famous - and corrupt - politicians in American history. In the 19th century, Tweed was an influential mover and shaker for Tammany Hall, the infamous Democratic political machine in New York City and the driving force behind the party's success in the city for decades. Although Tweed never technically held a position of power in New York City's government, he essentially ran the city and its finances between 1868 and 1871 as a political boss of Tammany, and even before that, Tweed would make a name for himself among politicians as an alderman who had a penchant for figuring out how to profit from political situations. By the end of his life, people across the state commonly referred to his operation as the Tweed Ring. While Tweed was at one point among the wealthiest men in the country during the 19th century, he would die in prison thanks to the illegal accumulation of this wealth. Over the course of his time at Tammany Hall, he would steal millions of dollars from state taxpayers, and he was known for extorting large sums of money for political favors. He was finally brought down by the media in a crusade of sorts that would set the precedent for how the press would deal with political scandals for years to come. As a contemporary writer, William R. Martin, put it in 1878, "Three casual expressions attributed to Mr. Tweed, illustrated by his brief political history, indicate his theory of administration. The first was, 'The way to have power is to take it;' the second, 'He is human;' and the third, 'What are you going to do about it' In his career was exhibited the despotic phase of municipal administration. He got for himself and his associates offices, one after the other, by taking them with or without right, until he held the power of the State, and then fortified his position by enacting appropriate laws. His means of doing this was to approach men through their self-interests, and to buy their support by promises, offices, and money. His appreciation of this trait in the character of the men about him was expressed in his belief that they were 'human.' The arrogance of the full possession of power and the defiance against the remonstrances of honest men drove him to the extreme of audacity, 'What are you going to do about it' which preceded his fall. There was no greater popular mistake than to call Mr. Tweed and his associates a 'ring.' They were so at the outset by the 'cohesive power of public plunder, ' but, once in possession, like a crew of pirates who had gained the deck of a prize, they became arrayed against each other."

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingRussia has been depicted by the media as a cyberspace boogeyman, a nation of hackers that can and will exploit any and all vulnerabilities of private organizations, government entities, and social media platforms. Over the last 10 years, as hackers all over the world have been mobilized to carry out state agendas, this "nation of hackers" reputation has evolved into something much more serious. The vague notion of "Russian hackers" used to primarily worry CTOs of banks and credit card companies, while merely amusing or fascinating curious people, but today, Russian cyberwarfare keeps military officers, policymakers, and ordinary citizens around the world up at night. From alleged interference in foreign elections to coordinated power outages in Ukraine, numerous large-scale cyber attacks are thought to have been carried out by Russian state agencies and their proxies recently. Certain Western leaders have gone so far as to claim that Russian cyber warfare eclipses even terrorism in threatening global security- in the words of British Army General Sir Nick Carter, Russia "represents the most complex and capable state-based threat to our country since the end of the Cold War." The roots of cyber warfare, cyber espionage, and information warfare in Russia from signals intelligence and industrial espionage date back to the time of the USSR, while modern day information warfare and cyber warfare relate to Russian military operations. This book also looks at World War II's aftermath, signals intelligence and espionage during the Cold War, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and how the resulting chaos cultivated Russia's homegrown hacker talent. Through it all, this book looks at how Russia has interacted with other countries in the cyber domain, especially its former Soviet neighbors and the United States. Whether Russia does indeed eclipse other Western adversaries as the top global security threat, it is undeniably the home to an immensely talented community of hackers, many of whom have expressed willingness to employ their skills to support Russian foreign policy objectives, typically for monetary compensation. And regardless of whether these hackers are directly sponsored by the Russian state, foreign governments, or the intermediaries operating on behalf of the them, the history of Russia's cyber warfare is a fascinating one. Russian Cyber Warfare: The History of Russia's State-Sponsored Attacks across the World details the Russian intelligence groups' efforts to wage cyber warfare online. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Russia's cyber activities like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingBy the mid-15th century the Byzantine Empire had collapsed and the various Crusades that had taken place in the region had largely disrupted the overland routes of the Silk Road and trade. Compounding the difficulties of trade was the rise of the Ottoman Empire in place of the Byzantines and the outbreak of the Black Death in Europe. It was roughly around this time that a period of European exploration began, and major factors that contributed to this period of exploration were introduced by the Chinese, albeit indirectly. The magnetic compass had already been developed and used by the Chinese sailors since the 12th century, although it had first been created in the 3rd century BCE as a divination device. The Song Dynasty then began using the device for land navigation in the 11th century and sailors began using it shortly after. The technology slowly spread west via Arab traders, although a case can be made for the independent European creation for the compass (Southey 1812: 210). Regardless, by the 13th century the compass had found its way to Western traders, coming at a time that trade had been increasing across Europe. Trade was able to increase in Europe around the world due to more effective ships being introduced, and some of the improvements that were made to the ships were first introduced by the Chinese. The introduction of multiple mast ships and the sternpost rudders allowed the ships to travel quicker and be more maneuverable. By the start of the 15th century, ships were now much larger and able to support long distance travel with a minimum number of crew aboard. With that, the Portuguese started exploring the west coast of Africa and the Atlantic under orders from Prince Henry the Navigator. At this point, Europeans had not yet been capable of navigating completely around Africa since the ships being built were not yet fully capable of being able to sail very far from the coast and navigation in open waters was difficult, but the Portuguese continued pushing down the western African coast looking for ways to bypass the Ottomans and Muslims of Africa who had been making overland trade routes difficult. In 1451, Prince Henry the Navigator helped fund and develop a new type of ship, the caravel, that featured triangular lateen sails and would be able to travel in the open ocean and sail against the wind. In 1488, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the southern tip of Africa, named the Cape of Good Hope by King John of Portugal, and entered the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic. When it became clear Christopher Columbus hadn't landed in Asia, it was understood by everyone that this was not necessarily the route the Europeans were searching for, and the Portuguese continued to send explorers around the Cape of Good Hope in an attempt to reach the East Indies. After a two-year voyage, in 1499, Vasco da Gama had successfully reached India and returned to Portugal. The Portuguese had found access to the trade regions that they had been searching for, but sailing from Portugal to India and beyond would require too many resources to travel with at once. To remedy this problem, Portugal began establishing a number of forts and trading posts along the route. The Portuguese were able to establish a fort on the west coast of India, Fort Manuel, in 1500, and in 1505 a fort was erected off the coast of Tanzania, thus beginning a trend of European colonization in Africa and Asia that would last for the next 400 years. The Portuguese Empire and Africa: The History and Legacy of Portugal's Exploration and Colonization of the West African Coast chronicles the early efforts by the Portuguese that helped initiate the Age of Exploration, and the ramifications the colonization had across the world.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingBy the mid-15th century the Byzantine Empire had collapsed and the various Crusades that had taken place in the region had largely disrupted the overland routes of the Silk Road and trade. Compounding the difficulties of trade was the rise of the Ottoman Empire in place of the Byzantines and the outbreak of the Black Death in Europe. It was roughly around this time that a period of European exploration began, and major factors that contributed to this period of exploration were introduced by the Chinese, albeit indirectly. The magnetic compass had already been developed and used by the Chinese sailors since the 12th century, although it had first been created in the 3rd century BCE as a divination device. The Song Dynasty then began using the device for land navigation in the 11th century and sailors began using it shortly after. The technology slowly spread west via Arab traders, although a case can be made for the independent European creation for the compass (Southey 1812: 210). Regardless, by the 13th century the compass had found its way to Western traders, coming at a time that trade had been increasing across Europe. Trade was able to increase in Europe around the world due to more effective ships being introduced, and some of the improvements that were made to the ships were first introduced by the Chinese. The introduction of multiple mast ships and the sternpost rudders allowed the ships to travel quicker and be more maneuverable. By the start of the 15th century, ships were now much larger and able to support long distance travel with a minimum number of crew aboard. With that, the Portuguese started exploring the west coast of Africa and the Atlantic under orders from Prince Henry the Navigator. At this point, Europeans had not yet been capable of navigating completely around Africa since the ships being built were not yet fully capable of being able to sail very far from the coast and navigation in open waters was difficult, but the Portuguese continued pushing down the western African coast looking for ways to bypass the Ottomans and Muslims of Africa who had been making overland trade routes difficult. In 1451, Prince Henry the Navigator helped fund and develop a new type of ship, the caravel, that featured triangular lateen sails and would be able to travel in the open ocean and sail against the wind. In 1488, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the southern tip of Africa, named the Cape of Good Hope by King John of Portugal, and entered the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic. When it became clear Christopher Columbus hadn't landed in Asia, it was understood by everyone that this was not necessarily the route the Europeans were searching for, and the Portuguese continued to send explorers around the Cape of Good Hope in an attempt to reach the East Indies. After a two-year voyage, in 1499, Vasco da Gama had successfully reached India and returned to Portugal. The Portuguese had found access to the trade regions that they had been searching for, but sailing from Portugal to India and beyond would require too many resources to travel with at once. To remedy this problem, Portugal began establishing a number of forts and trading posts along the route. The Portuguese were able to establish a fort on the west coast of India, Fort Manuel, in 1500, and in 1505 a fort was erected off the coast of Tanzania, thus beginning a trend of European colonization in Africa and Asia that would last for the next 400 years. The Portuguese Empire and Africa: The History and Legacy of Portugal's Exploration and Colonization of the West African Coast chronicles the early efforts by the Portuguese that helped initiate the Age of Exploration, and the ramifications the colonization had across the world.

A B blia o livro mais famoso do mundo, lido por um n mero incont vel de crist os e outros ao longo dos s culos. Mesmo aqueles que n o s o crist os ou remotamente religiosos podem recitar Mateus, Marcos, Lucas e Jo o como os quatro primeiros evangelhos do Novo Testamento, e livros como G nesis e xodo incluem algumas das hist rias mais famosas da hist ria humana. Entre 50 e 90 EC, os v rios escritos que comp em o Novo Testamento foram escritos, incluindo os Quatro Evangelhos, os Atos dos Ap stolos, as Ep stolas de Paulo e outras cartas para comunidades mais gerais da Igreja primitiva. Mas o que reconhecido como os 26 livros do novo testamento hoje, em centenas de tradu es para o ingl s, na verdade levou v rios s culos mais para ser determinado como "can nicos" pela igreja. Na verdade, n o foi at um S nodo em Roma em 382 que a igreja no Ocidente adotou formalmente uma lista dos livros can nicos do novo testamento. Durante os tr s s culos que se seguiram, houve muita discuss o entre os diferentes escritores sobre os muitos manuscritos que circulavam entre as primeiras comunidades crist s. Muitos dos manuscritos foram escritos anonimamente por membros dos primeiros grupos her ticos de crist os que deram forma a escritos supostamente inspirados para dar apoio s suas posi es doutrin rias. Muitos outros tinham o verniz dos textos inspirados porque eram atribu dos a um dos Doze Ap stolos ou a Maria, a m e de Jesus; eles alegavam oferecer detalhes da vida de Jesus n o cobertos em profundidade nos Quatro Evangelhos (tais como sua inf ncia e inf ncia), ou as atividades do chamado ap stolo, ou ensinamentos doutrin rios. Finalmente, havia escritos que apresentavam os principais ensinamentos crist os ortodoxos dos s culos 1 e 2; em alguns casos eles eram de autoria dos sucessores dos ap stolos, em outros os autores eram an nimos. Enquanto os escritos nas duas primeiras categorias nunca foram vistos como inspirados pelos primeiros pais da igreja (os primeiros bispos, professores e te logos p s-apost licos nos tr s primeiros s culos depois de Cristo), houve disputa entre diferentes estudiosos sobre o status desses escritos como Escritura. No final, por m, esses escritos n o foram inclu dos no c non do Novo Testamento. Em vez disso, eles se tornaram os primeiros escritos n o-b blicos da igreja. O processo de determinar a Canon do Novo Testamento foi longo. Envolveu numerosos estudiosos dirigidos pelos ensinamentos da Igreja, examinando numerosos manuscritos com v rias autoriza es atribu das. Os 29 que chegaram ao c non foram aqueles que passaram em termos de autoria apost lica e conformidade com o ensino ortodoxo da Igreja. A maioria daqueles que n o o fizeram falharam nessas duas contas. Outros n o foram inclu dos porque foram julgados como n o tendo sido escritos sob a inspira o do Esp rito Santo. Seja qual for a raz o pela qual eles foram exclu dos, os escritos que compreendem os Ap crifos do Novo Testamento, embora n o sejam inspirados nas Escrituras, mostram algo do contexto no qual a Igreja primitiva desenvolveu suas doutrinas e seus escritos. Mesmo hoje em dia, nem todos os ramos da igreja crist concordam sobre quais escritos devem ser considerados "can nicos" e quais s o "ap crifos", embora alguns textos ap crifos frequentemente tenham v nculos not veis com livros considerados "can nicos". Independentemente disso, os Ap crifos do Novo Testamento referem-se a textos escritos por crist os primitivos que n o foram inclu dos na B blia usados pelos principais ramos do cristianismo hoje. Esses textos variam em assunto, com alguns sendo relatos de Jesus, outros sendo sobre a natureza de Deus, e ainda outros sendo relatos e ensinamentos dos ap stolos de Jesus.

A B blia o livro mais famoso do mundo, lido por um n mero incont vel de crist os e outros ao longo dos s culos. Mesmo aqueles que n o s o crist os ou remotamente religiosos podem recitar Mateus, Marcos, Lucas e Jo o como os quatro primeiros evangelhos do Novo Testamento, e livros como G nesis e xodo incluem algumas das hist rias mais famosas da hist ria humana. Entre 50 e 90 EC, os v rios escritos que comp em o Novo Testamento foram escritos, incluindo os Quatro Evangelhos, os Atos dos Ap stolos, as Ep stolas de Paulo e outras cartas para comunidades mais gerais da Igreja primitiva. Mas o que reconhecido como os 26 livros do novo testamento hoje, em centenas de tradu es para o ingl s, na verdade levou v rios s culos mais para ser determinado como "can nicos" pela igreja. Na verdade, n o foi at um S nodo em Roma em 382 que a igreja no Ocidente adotou formalmente uma lista dos livros can nicos do novo testamento. Durante os tr s s culos que se seguiram, houve muita discuss o entre os diferentes escritores sobre os muitos manuscritos que circulavam entre as primeiras comunidades crist s. Muitos dos manuscritos foram escritos anonimamente por membros dos primeiros grupos her ticos de crist os que deram forma a escritos supostamente inspirados para dar apoio s suas posi es doutrin rias. Muitos outros tinham o verniz dos textos inspirados porque eram atribu dos a um dos Doze Ap stolos ou a Maria, a m e de Jesus; eles alegavam oferecer detalhes da vida de Jesus n o cobertos em profundidade nos Quatro Evangelhos (tais como sua inf ncia e inf ncia), ou as atividades do chamado ap stolo, ou ensinamentos doutrin rios. Finalmente, havia escritos que apresentavam os principais ensinamentos crist os ortodoxos dos s culos 1 e 2; em alguns casos eles eram de autoria dos sucessores dos ap stolos, em outros os autores eram an nimos. Enquanto os escritos nas duas primeiras categorias nunca foram vistos como inspirados pelos primeiros pais da igreja (os primeiros bispos, professores e te logos p s-apost licos nos tr s primeiros s culos depois de Cristo), houve disputa entre diferentes estudiosos sobre o status desses escritos como Escritura. No final, por m, esses escritos n o foram inclu dos no c non do Novo Testamento. Em vez disso, eles se tornaram os primeiros escritos n o-b blicos da igreja. O processo de determinar a Canon do Novo Testamento foi longo. Envolveu numerosos estudiosos dirigidos pelos ensinamentos da Igreja, examinando numerosos manuscritos com v rias autoriza es atribu das. Os 29 que chegaram ao c non foram aqueles que passaram em termos de autoria apost lica e conformidade com o ensino ortodoxo da Igreja. A maioria daqueles que n o o fizeram falharam nessas duas contas. Outros n o foram inclu dos porque foram julgados como n o tendo sido escritos sob a inspira o do Esp rito Santo. Seja qual for a raz o pela qual eles foram exclu dos, os escritos que compreendem os Ap crifos do Novo Testamento, embora n o sejam inspirados nas Escrituras, mostram algo do contexto no qual a Igreja primitiva desenvolveu suas doutrinas e seus escritos. Mesmo hoje em dia, nem todos os ramos da igreja crist concordam sobre quais escritos devem ser considerados "can nicos" e quais s o "ap crifos", embora alguns textos ap crifos frequentemente tenham v nculos not veis com livros considerados "can nicos". Independentemente disso, os Ap crifos do Novo Testamento referem-se a textos escritos por crist os primitivos que n o foram inclu dos na B blia usados pelos principais ramos do cristianismo hoje. Esses textos variam em assunto, com alguns sendo relatos de Jesus, outros sendo sobre a natureza de Deus, e ainda outros sendo relatos e ensinamentos dos ap stolos de Jesus.

*Includes picturesIncludes a bibliography for further reading "I hope, when my time comes, that I die decently in bed. I don't want to be murdered beside the garbage cans in some Chicago alley." - Bugs MoranSprightly swing music spills across the dimly lit club. The grayish curtains of cigarette smoke part every once in a while to reveal a sparkling stage and tables upon tables of patrons, some incurably inebriated and others high on the fast-paced nightlife. Fabulous flappers in shimmery cocktail dresses and stylish feather headbands throw their hands up and stomp their feet to the addictive beat on the dance floor. Smartly dressed men, their hair neatly parted and slicked back, toss fistfuls of dice onto the plush green baize of the craps tables. Some hover over roulette wheels, staring intently at the spinning flashes of silver, while others finger their playing cards as they sip on tumblers of whiskey, eyeing both the river and the tower of tokens next to them. Frisky tunes, chic fashion, and American gambling are nostalgic, rose-tinted images most choose to project when visualizing the Roaring Twenties, but the other side of the coin brought an uninviting, much harsher reality that most would prefer to sweep under the rug. The first real estate bubble was on the brink of bursting, and progress was evident, but painfully slow, which gave way to yet another era of violent riots, lynchings, and other forms of oppression imposed on minorities. Then, of course, there were mobsters. Remove the silk three-piece suits, burnished Tommy guns, and obscene stacks of cash from the equation, and one would be left with limp, bullet-ridden bodies either slumped over their steering wheels or sprawled out like broken rag dolls on the floors of public establishments, the walls painted with blood spatters and shattered glass littered about. These, they say, are the lucky ones, for their corpses, though laid out as a public message, provide the deceased's loved ones with some form of closure. Over the decades, dozens involved in this deadly game disappeared altogether, never again to see the light of day. One of the most infamous of the gangsters during this era was George "Bugs" Moran, who bore all the qualities of a stereotypical 20th century mobster. They didn't call him "Bugs" for nothing, as the man was a vindictive, ticking time bomb who unleashed hell upon anyone who dared cross him. One of the most prolific career criminals of his time, he was convicted and incarcerated at least three times before his 21st birthday. George was a seasoned gunman (so much so that he was eventually crowned the "father of drive-by shootings"), an expert rum-runner, and the fearsome head of one of the most prominent gangs in all of Chicago. It was these activities and his gang's most prominent rivalry that have ensured Bugs Moran remains a household name today. On February 14, 1929, members of his North Side Gang arrived at a warehouse on North Clark Street in Chicago, only to be approached by several police officers. The officers then marched them outside up against a wall, pulled out submachine guns and shotguns, and gunned them all down on the spot. A famous legend is that one of the shot men, Frank Gusenberg, dying from 14 gunshot wounds, told police that nobody shot him. Though Gusenberg's statement is probably apocryphal, nobody opened their mouths. Nobody was ever convicted for the "Saint Valentine's Day Massacre," the most infamous gangland hit in American history, but it's an open secret that it was the work of America's most famous gangster, Al Capone. Indeed, "Scarface" has captured the nation's popular imagination since Prohibition, managing to be the most notorious gangster in America while living a very visible and high-profile life in Chicago. Bugs and Scarface had hated each other for over a decade, and, though he narrowly avoided it, Bugs was supposed to be the main target.

*Includes pictures*Includes soldiers' accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingWorld War I, also known in its time as the "Great War" or the "War to End all Wars", was an unprecedented holocaust in terms of its sheer scale. Fought by men who hailed from all corners of the globe, it saw millions of soldiers do battle in brutal assaults of attrition which dragged on for months with little to no respite. Tens of millions of artillery shells and untold hundreds of millions of rifle and machine gun bullets were fired in a conflict that demonstrated man's capacity to kill each other on a heretofore unprecedented scale, and as always, such a war brought about technological innovation at a rate that made the boom of the Industrial Revolution seem stagnant. Naturally, as one of the main belligerents of the war, and arguably the most powerful, Germany led the way in many respects. Between innovation, the scale of manpower, and cutting edge tactics and technology, the Imperial German Army would inflict devastating losses on the enemy, but the war would also prove to be its undoing, even as the seeds of that conflict would lead to far worse a generation later. The Imperial German Army had developed a formidable reputation decades earlier, almost immediately upon the unification of the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1871. Prussia dominated the new Germany, and with that came a strong military tradition and hierarchy. Not surprisingly, German leaders who had such power at their disposal were more than willing to use it, and when Kaiser Wilhelm II was crowned, a monarch with a thirst for foreign adventurism took control of Germany. In the decades before 1914, German politics became increasingly authoritarian and its society militarized. In conjunction with that, as the German Empire wanted to become a Great Power, it induced distrust amongst its rivals. Berlin was arguably the most enthusiastic European capital for a war in 1914, and German leaders enacted the long prepared "Schlieffen Plan" almost immediately. Although the German army advanced rapidly in the early weeks of the First World War, it would meet unexpected resistance from the British and French. Bogged down in the trenches of Flanders, the Germans had more success on the Eastern Front against the Russians, and eventually, after the Tsarist regime was overthrown, they emerged victorious there. By early 1918 though, German society was exhausted by war and starving due to a naval embargo. After a last-ditch offensive in early 1918, the British and French forces, now supported by the Americans, finally achieved some success against the weakening German army. November 1918 brought an armistice, and the punitive victor's justice of the Treaty of Versailles left many former German soldiers angry and resentful moving forward. The legacy of the German army's indecisive defeat would resonate for many when these grievances were stoked by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis less than a generation later. The Imperial German Army: The History and Legacy of Germany's Armed Forces during World War I chronicles the German military in the years after the German Empire's formation and World War I. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Germany's army in World War I like never before.

Alguns chamaram a guerra mais desnecess ria da hist ria da Guerra da Crimeia e, embora seja mal compreendida, muitas vezes negligenciada e s vezes ignorada, ela tamb m envolveu muitas das maiores pot ncias do s culo 19, como R ssia, Gr -Bretanha, Fran a, Imp rio Otomano e ustria. bem como homens de terras que esses poderes chamariam de seus imp rios. Foi uma guerra entre o velho e o novo, misturando estilos de luta e armas modernas napole nicas, a diplomacia do velho mundo e as comunica es modernas, e as regras tradicionais da guerra e do moderno n mero de mortos. O conflito proclamado ou como a ltima guerra de uma era ou a primeira de outra, com um n mero de mortes superior a 775.000, a quebra e o fortalecimento de alian as tradicionais e estabelecendo precedentes para os conflitos que est o por vir. Como disse o historiador AJP Taylor: "Em certo sentido, a guerra da Crimeia foi predestinada e teve causas profundas. Nem Nicolau nem Napole o III] nem o governo brit nico puderam recuar no conflito por prest gio quando este foi lan ado. Nicholas precisava de uma Turquia subserviente em prol da seguran a russa; Napole o precisava de sucesso por causa de sua posi o dom stica; o governo brit nico precisava de uma Turquia independente para a seguran a do Mediterr neo Oriental ... O medo m tuo, n o a agress o m tua, causou a Guerra da Crimeia. "Foi certamente um precursor do tipo de guerra europ ia que ocorreria quando v rias alian as entrassem em conflito umas com as outras. A Guerra da Crimeia foi particularmente interessante devido ao gigantesco impasse pol tico que a precedeu, s mudan as geopol ticas em curso e ao equil brio de poder na poca. Em um mbito geopol tico mais amplo, o fato de que Fran a e Gr -Bretanha ficaram do lado dos otomanos contra a R ssia destacou as preocupa es com a crescente amea a representada pelas ambi es russas no Mar Negro. A rea o da R ssia crise foi tamb m um sinal da import ncia dessa rea, uma chave para a capacidade de Moscou de projetar seu poder fora de sua rea natural de influ ncia. A recente guerra na Ucr nia e a interven o russa na S ria, que come ou com o envio de navios de Sebastopol para Tartus, tamb m pode ser uma boa lembran a do valor estrat gico desta regi o. O verdadeiro gatilho para a crise - embora a guerra tivesse ra zes muito mais profundas - tamb m foi significativo, ressaltando as crescentes rivalidades sobre os locais sagrados em Jerusal m e Bel m e o surgimento de tens es religiosas l . As tens es entre a Fran a e a R ssia aumentaram anos antes da guerra, ap s uma s rie de incidentes envolvendo os locais sagrados crist os na Palestina. As disputas locais entre os crist os romanos e os ortodoxos muitas vezes irromperam em frente Igreja do Santo Sepulcro - os otomanos tiveram que colocar soldados em frente ao local durante os feriados. Essas tens es, juntamente com o crescente n mero de visitantes russos, resultaram em crescente raiva e preocupa o entre os crist os franceses, que argumentavam que a Fran a tinha sido a protetora dos locais sagrados desde as Cruzadas, um direito que foi confirmado pelo tratado de Capitula es de 1740Os russos, no entanto, afirmavam que eles haviam sido os protetores de todos os crist os dentro do Imp rio Otomano desde a assinatura do tratado Kuchuk Kainarji em 1774. Embora poucas mudan as territoriais tenham sido feitas, o conflito levou desmilitariza o do Mar Negro, marcando o decl nio da influ ncia russa no pa s. Tamb m prolongou a vida do Imp rio Otomano, ocasionalmente referido por aquele ponto como o "homem doente da Europa". Mas talvez mais importante do ponto de vista geopol tico, a guerra contribuiu para o desmoronamento do equil brio de poder europeu prec rio. A guerra entre a ustria e a Fran a na It lia e a ascens o de uma nova pot ncia central durante a guerra de unifica o liderada por Otto Von Bismar

*Includes pictures*Includes ancient accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAfrica may have given rise to the first human beings, and Egypt probably gave rise to the first great civilizations, which continue to fascinate modern societies across the globe nearly 5,000 years later. From the Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria to the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Ancient Egyptians produced several wonders of the world, revolutionized architecture and construction, created some of the world's first systems of mathematics and medicine, and established language and art that spread across the known world. With world-famous leaders like King Tut and Cleopatra, it's no wonder that today's world has so many Egyptologists. What makes the accomplishments of the Ancient Egyptians all the more remarkable is that Egypt was historically a place of great political turbulence. Its position made it both valuable and vulnerable to tribes across the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and Ancient Egypt had no shortage of its own internecine warfare. Its most famous conquerors would come from Europe, with Alexander the Great laying the groundwork for the Hellenic Ptolemy line and the Romans extinguishing that line after defeating Cleopatra and driving her to suicide. One of the primary reasons why modern scholars know so much about Egyptian history is due to many monuments found up and down the Nile. Although some of the tombs built on the west bank of the Nile River have suffered a fair amount of wind damage and all of the great monuments have endured the ravages of time, they are amazingly well-preserved, thanks both to Egypt's arid climate and good workmanship. The Egyptian monument builders were truly a class above their contemporaries in terms of their trade, which was helped by the fact that they worked with the more permanent materials of sandstone and limestone, unlike Mesopotamian builders who were forced to primarily work with mud and brick. Of course, even the finest made Egyptian granite statues and limestone temples could do little to stop population explosions and changing weather patterns, which combined to bury most pharaonic era monuments in the Egyptian Delta. Today, the Delta is the most densely populated portion of the already densely populated country and is located on a high water table that is subject to routine flooding, just as it was in ancient times. Throughout the millennia since the pharaohs ruled Egypt, peasants have routinely used remnants of ancient monuments for new housing structures, implements, and even fertilizer, and the situation is even more pronounced closer to the Mediterranean coast. Cities that once were major ports where the various branches of the Nile River flowed into the Mediterranean are now miles off the coastline, under hundreds of feet of water. The existence of these cities was known thanks to Egyptian and Greek historical sources, but their locations could never be positively identified until the advent of modern marine technology. In 1996, adventurer and scholar Franck Goddio identified what he believed was a major site just off the Mediterranean coastline in the Abu Qir Bay, east of Alexandria. It turned out Goddio had discovered the ancient city of Heracleion, which was part of a larger metropolitan area that included the cities of Canopus and Naucratis. Although there is still much work to be done, the discovery has already yielded vital information about Heracleion's importance as a center of trade and religion from the 7th century BCE until the 8th century CE. The Lost City of Heracleion: The History of the Ancient Egyptian City Now Underwater in the Mediterranean examines the history of the city, and what life was like there. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Heracleion like never before.

A B blia o livro mais famoso do mundo, lido por um n mero incont vel de crist os e outros ao longo dos s culos. Mesmo aqueles que n o s o crist os ou remotamente religiosos podem recitar Mateus, Marcos, Lucas e Jo o como os quatro primeiros evangelhos do Novo Testamento, e livros como G nesis e xodo incluem algumas das hist rias mais famosas da hist ria humana. O estudo dos evangelhos ap crifos, documentos sobre a vida ou declara es de Jesus que n o se tornaram parte do Novo Testamento, uma disciplina popular entre os estudiosos que agora enche v rias prateleiras de qualquer biblioteca respeit vel. Apesar da crescente seculariza o da sociedade, parece haver um apetite pela figura hist rica de Jesus. No entanto, menos leitores consideram a quest o de saber se o Antigo Testamento, tamb m conhecido como a B blia Hebraica, "completo", e se na antiguidade havia outros livros al m de G nesis, o xodo ou Ju zes, com diferentes hist rias e caracteres desconhecidos, exclu dos do c non e se perderam nas areias do tempo. A maioria dos leitores sup e que a grande saga de Israel, come ando com as hist rias pastorais dos patriarcas, a epopeia do xodo e a conquista da Terra Prometida, at a corte do rei Davi, uma hist ria compacta, completa e nica. Em sua forma atual, parece come ar do come o, e como tal foi aceito por todos na antiguidade, mas algu m na antiga Israel escreveu outras interpreta es? Recentes descobertas arqueol gicas e textuais revelaram que a produ o liter ria entre o povo de Israel antes da vida de Jesus era muito mais extensa e variada do que se supunha anteriormente. Os primeiros exegetas crist os e judeus estavam cientes de alguns textos cujo status era impreciso. Os livros de Tobias, Macabeus e Judite pertenceram s escrituras sagradas de Israel ou n o? O que aconteceu com certos livros que s o mencionados na B blia, mas n o foram encontrados, como hist rias sobre a corte do rei Davi, os Anais de Salom o, um livro de Jasher, e proeminente o Livro de 1688 de Guerras do Senhor? ? H outro grupo de livros que desperta interesse especial, incluindo uma extensa cole o de escritos judaicos e judaicos-helen sticos que est o dispon veis (alguns em estado fragment rio), mas que por algum motivo foram exclu dos do Antigo Testamento. Alguns foram recuperados ou desenterrados nos ltimos 2.000 anos, enquanto outros permaneceram sob a cust dia de bibliotecas secretas ou her ticas. Entre eles est o o Livro de Enoque, o Livro de 688 de Jubileu, o Apocalipse de Mois s, e muitos outros. Apesar de n o ter sido admitido como c none, muitas das suas doutrinas permearam na cultura popular, mesmo na antiguidade, incluindo-se entre os primeiros crist os. A rebeli o dos anjos maus liderados por Satan s, o castigo para os pecadores no vale dos mortos, o conceito de um Messias que iria morrer por seu povo, e a cren a na ressurrei o dos m rtires com a restitui o literal dos seus corpos mutilados s o ideias que surgiu em livros ap crifos do antigo testamento. Essas cren as n o s o encontradas na B blia hebraica. Que o Antigo Testamento n o era um produto acabado na poca do Segundo Templo (500 aC-70 dC) e que havia mais livros em circula o pode ser estabelecido considerando que a literatura ap crifa judaica citada no Novo Testamento. A Ep stola de Judas menciona uma luta entre o diabo e um arcanjo pela alma de Mois s, um epis dio n o encontrado no Pentateuco. O autor da ep stola que est citando de Enoque, um ap crifo livro do antigo testamento, ou possivelmente da ascens o de Mois s, que o autor de Judas considerado como autoritativo.