Charles River

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingThough it started as a 300 person settlement in 1832, Chicago's location near the Great Lakes and its access to the Mississippi River turned it into a major trading city overnight. The city became even more important when railroads were constructed to connect the country, making it the first major city in the "West" during the mid-19th century. By 1871, the original 300 person settlement was now home to about 300,000 people, and Chicago had become the first major city built by Americans rather than European colonial powers Thus, it had taken less than 40 years for the new settlement of 300 to become a city of nearly 300,000, but it only took two days in 1871 for much of it to be destroyed. On the night of October 8, 1871, a blaze in the southwestern section of Chicago began to burn out of control. The popular legend is that a cow in Mrs. Catherine O'Leary's barn had kicked over a lantern and started a fire. The story blaming the cow was a colorful fabrication, but the fire itself was very real, lasting almost two whole days and devouring several square miles of the city. The fire was so powerful that firefighters could not put it out, due to dry conditions, stiff winds, and the fact the city was mostly made of wood. Walking around Chicago today, it's easy to forget about its past as a rural frontier. That's due in no small part to the way Chicago responded to the Great Fire of 1871. Immediately after the fire, Chicago encouraged inhabitants and architects to build over the ruins, spurring creative architecture with elaborate designs. Architects descended upon the city for the opportunity to rebuild the area, and over the next few decades they had rebuilt Chicago with the country's most modern architecture and monuments. Chicago recovered well enough within 20 years to win the right to host the World's Fair in 1893, which was commemorating the 400th anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the New World. Covering nearly two square miles, the Fair's grounds created a city within a city, and Daniel Burnham was in the middle of it all. With several other noteworthy architects, including Louis Sullivan, Burnham designed the layout of the grounds and the construction of the buildings on the ground. During the late 19th century, "neoclassicism" was in vogue, and American architects designed buildings incorporating ancient Greek and Roman architecture. With its white colored buildings, the Fair stood out from the rest of Chicago, earning it the label "White City." Throughout 1893, it attracted millions of visitors, allowing Chicago to introduce itself to foreign visitors and reintroduce itself as a major American city. As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, it became apparent that Chicago's prominence had ended, and it moved ahead with the rest of the nation, a city among many. The 20th century brought new problems, not just for Chicago but for the entire nation. Labor, crime, and race relations rose to the forefront as major issues faced by cities throughout the nation, and how Chicago handled these issues shaped the city throughout the century, transforming the Windy City permanently. Chicago in the 20th Century: The History and Legacy of the Windy City's Modernization examines how Chicago became one of America's greatest cities. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about 20th century Chicago like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAmong all the world's capitals, few contain a governmental seat of power as imposing or impressive as the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia. While the name itself is often used as a shorthand to refer to the Russian government, and many people associate it with Red Square, the Kremlin is actually a fortress inside the heart of Moscow, replete with everything from ramparts and towers to decadent churches. The history of Russia is vast and winding, so it should come as no surprise that the same can be said for the Kremlin. Construction on the site was taking place by the 12th century, and by the 14th century it was imposing enough to withstand sieges. Ivan the Great added artistic flourishes to the Kremlin during the Renaissance, Catherine the Great had a residence built inside it during the 18th century, and Napoleon severely damaged the Kremlin in the course of ordering its destruction during the invasion of Russia in 1812. Even as Russian dynasties came and went, and a transition to the Soviet Union was made, the Kremlin remained, even as constant changes took place within it. For over two centuries, the capital of America has been located in Washington, D. C., and among all the iconic landmarks and monuments associated with the city, nothing provides symbolism quite like the White House, the primary residence and office of the president. The instantly recognizable exterior and its location have ensured that the White House is associated as the main seat of power in the world's most powerful country. At the same time, the majesty of the White House and its tranquil setting belie its rather chaotic history, which includes being burned down by the British during the War of 1812, suffering damage during wild inaugural balls, and undergoing countless renovations. As Brian Kelly, author of Best Little Stories from the White House: More Than 100 True Stories, put it, "You could almost argue, in fact, that it wasn't finished, truly, until yesterday. And...who knows what they may do to it tomorrow, as it has undergone so many changes, additions, improvements, and even subtractions in its two-hundred-year history. The fact is, the White House we see today is not the White House of yore." Just as the interior has changed, the use of the White House has also changed considerably over time. While the White House was always intended to serve as the president's home and a place to receive dignitaries, in the early 19th century, the White House was open to the public, to the extent that people could simply call on the president. Perhaps most notably, the White House has historically been open to public tours, albeit with exceptions made based on security issues, wars, and budget issues. The availability of the public to tour the White House is a strong reminder that while it may house the president during his term, the place ultimately belongs to the people. The White House and the Kremlin: The History and Legacy of the World's Most Famous Official Residences looks at the history of both seats of power, how they've changed over time, and what's inside them. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the White House and Kremlin like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingHistorians once portrayed Eichmann mostly as a colorless, unimaginative bureaucrat who carried out the Holocaust simply because he lacked the imagination to reject the crime. Essentially "banal," this version of Eichmann turned him into a compliant functionary who handled the ghastly matter of collecting, transporting, and murdering millions of people with the same bland methodical means that other administrators applied to supplying the Wehrmacht with bread rations or new boots. Of course, Eichmann's story is best known for the way in which the Mossad, Israel's intelligence agency, kidnapped him out of Argentina in 1960 to put him on trial back in the Jewish State. Employing the same failed defense used by many defendants at the Nuremburg Trials, Eichmann claimed he was simply following the orders of his superiors and was bound by an oath of loyalty, and while judges found him not guilty of personally killing anyone, he was found guilty of crimes against humanity, war crimes, and other crimes before being executed. At 10:00 a.m. on September 12, 1972, Prime Minister Golda Meir appeared before a special session of the Knesset, the Israeli parliament. Wasting no time, the austere, chain-smoking grandmother addressed a full house of 120 members. "I want to share my plans with you," she said. 'I've decided to pursue each and every one of them. Not one of the people involved in any way will be walking around on this earth for much longer. We will chase them to the last." These determined and resolute words were spoken in reference to the surviving operatives and planners of one of the most audacious terrorist attacks mounted against Israel since the founding of the nation in 1948. A week earlier, on September 5, 1972, 8 Palestinian terrorists belonging to the Black September faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) entered the Olympic Village in Munich, West Germany, and took 11 Israeli athletes and team members hostage. After a lengthy standoff and a bungled rescue operation, all 11 were killed. A few months before Munich, on May 8, 1972, a new style of warfare came to the fore when 4 members of Black September hijacked Belgian Sabena Flight 571 en route from Brussels to Tel Aviv. From a security perspective, this was quite an unprecedented situation, as an operation to free hostages on board a commercial airliner had never been tried before. Hijackings and similar attacks only increased in number and violence in the following years. In response, the Israelis instituted a policy of an "eye for an eye," destroying Arab aircraft whenever the Palestinians or others damaged or destroyed one of their own. They also established a custom of refusing to negotiate with hostage-takers and terrorists, while greatly increasing security measures surrounding their national airline, El Al. Nonetheless, the violence only increased after the Israelis won the Yom Kippur War of 1973 in spite of early Arab successes. In the process of countering these attacks and hijackings, the Israelis developed valuable skills in commando operations and hostage rescue. This experience stood them in good stead in the summer of 1976, when a large-scale hijacking led to a daring Israeli operation thousands of miles from the Levant at the Ugandan airport of Entebbe, then part of the domain of dictator Idi "Big Daddy" Amin. Israel's Most Legendary Operations: The History and Legacy of the Capture of Adolf Eichmann, Operation Wrath of God, and Operation Entebbe examines the chain of events that led to three of the 20th century's most dramatic operations. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Israel's most famous operations like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAfter the first year of the Civil War, the Confederacy was faced with a serious problem. While the South had enjoyed some stunning victories on land, they had been all but cut off from the world at sea. The more industrialized North had realized that in case of an extended war, the best way to defeat the Confederacy was to starve it of supplies. The rebels started the war with no real navy to speak of, and so the federal government quickly set up a blockade of all Southern ports and river mouths. By depriving the South of revenues derived from its main export, cotton, the North seriously injured the Southern economy. Without European intervention and the ability to build a navy that could rival the Union's, the Confederacy was mostly reduced to token resistance and using fast moving ships that could evade the blockade and import and export goods. Again, that was only partially successful, and today, the blockade runners are better known for their extracurricular activities; most notably, some of the crews also acted as privateers on the high seas, attacking U. S. shipping and taking any loot for themselves. The daring exploits of these commerce raiders caught the imagination of Southern soldiers and civilians and buoyed up morale, even as the war news turned increasingly grim. The USS Kearsarge would face off against the Alabama off the French coast. Unaware the Union ship was partly fitted with the armor of an ironclad, the Confederates decided to attack, and after the Alabama was escorted out of the French harbor by French ships, the Alabama and Kearsage dueled with each other in full view of hundreds of Frenchmen gathered on the coast. The battle lasted about an hour until the Alabama was headed to the bottom and dozens of its sailors were killed or wounded. Dozens more would be rescued, including some by the Kearsarge, and with that, the most famous Confederate raiding vessel of all was no more. The battle itself was celebrated in a number of artworks, including a few paintings by Edouard Manet, and the end of the Alabama brought relief to Union supporters across America. Given how deadly the war was, what makes the history of the CSS Shenandoah, the last ship of the Civil War to surrender, all the more remarkable is that it was one of the only forces not to inflict casualties. It is also an intriguing story, for it begins with a tale of spies at work, not in a country torn apart by war, but in England, a nation both drawn to and terrified of the Civil War. There, the Sea King was purchased and became a different type of ship with a different name, rigged for fighting and rebranded the CSS Shenandoah. Somewhat ironically, it was named for one of the South's most appealing regions, one absolutely fought over and ravaged several times during the war. In the end, it was not what the Shenandoah did that made it controversial so much as when it did it, because thanks to the painfully slow communications of the 19th century, the crew of the ship wrought some of the most serious damage in the weeks after the war was over. Indeed, when the ship surrendered to the British government in November 1865, it became the last Confederate vessel in the world to do so, meaning the crew faced the possibility of being labeled pirates. Fortunately, it was recognized at the time, as it is today, that this was merely an accident of history, not deliberate piracy, and the men were not prosecuted. Instead, they returned to their home with more stories to tell than most sailors, and less blood on their hands. This book examines how the legendary ship preyed on Union shipping across the globe for much of the war. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about the CSS Alabama and CSS Shenandoah like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced... Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus had no need of praetorian cohorts, or of countless legions to guard them, but were defended by their own good lives, the good-will of their subjects, and the attachment of the senate." - Niccolo Machiavelli"If a man were called upon to fix that period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the deaths of Domitian to the accession of Commodus." - Edward Gibbon "The Five Good Emperors," a reference to the five emperors who ruled the Roman Empire between 96 and 180 CE (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius), was a term first coined by Machiavelli and later adopted and popularized by historian Edward Gibbon, who said that under these men, the Roman Empire "was governed by absolute power under the guidance of wisdom and virtue." This period of 84 years is generally regarded as the high point of the Roman Empire, at least after Augustus, but what is uncertain and a matter of ongoing debate is whether the five emperors were personally responsible for the situation and the accompanying prosperity enjoyed throughout the empire at the time or if they were simply the beneficiaries of the Pax Romana, inaugurated by Augustus in the early part of the 1st century CE. In other words, historians have wondered whether anyone in power during those years would have enjoyed the same rewards. The description of these rulers as "good" is also a matter of interpretation, with some scholars suggesting they were only "good" in comparison to the preceding emperor (Domitian) and the emperor who followed Marcus Aurelius (Commodus). Both of them were horrible rulers in every aspect, making their near contemporaries look all the better. Regardless, it is clear that the era of the Five Good Emperors was one of unparalleled success and wealth, and the reasons Rome reached its zenith at this time are worthy of scrutiny. Perhaps most noteworthy is that none of these five emperors were blood relatives - while the final two are often referred to as the Antonines, they were not, in fact, related except by adoption, a practice that may in itself provide at least part of the answer to the question as to why this particular period was so magnificent. These 84 years also witnessed an impressive growth in the size of the Roman Empire. New acquisitions ranged from northern Britain to Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Dacia. Furthermore, existing possessions were consolidated, and the empire's defenses improved when compared to what had come before. A range of countries that had been client states became fully integrated provinces, and even Italy saw administrative reforms which created further wealth. Throughout the empire, the policy of Romanization proved successful, at least in terms of introducing a common language, enabling standards of living to rise, and creating a political system minimizing internal strife. With all of that said, according to some academics, the success these rulers had in centralizing the empire's administration, while undoubtedly bringing huge benefits, also sowed the seeds for later problems. After all, as so many Roman emperors proved, from Caligula and Nero to Commodus, the empire's approach to governance was predicated on the ruler's ability. When incompetent or insane emperors came to power, the whole edifice came tumbling down.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"Sir, the amount of standing water, unpoliced grounds, of foul sinks, of unventilated and crowded barracks, of general disorder, of soil reeking miasmatic accretions, of rotten bones and emptying of camp kettles, is enough to drive a sanitarian to despair. I hope that no thought will be entertained of mending matters. The absolute abandonment of the spot seems to be the only judicious course. I do not believe that any amount of drainage would purge that soil loaded with accumulated filth or those barracks fetid with two stories of vermin and animal exhalations. Nothing but fire can cleanse them." - Henry Whitney Bellows, president of the U. S. Sanitary Commission, in a report to Lieutenant Colonel William Hoffman, Office of the Commissary-General of Prisoners, about Camp DouglasIt is impossible to conduct a war without atrocities occurring, primarily because war itself is an atrocity, but when those who win the war write the histories, as they almost always do, they typically ignore or seek to explain away their own malevolent acts while exaggerating those of their defeated enemy. This goes a long way in explaining why the name Andersonville immediately conjures up visions of horrific suffering for many Americans, while the name Camp Douglas means almost nothing to those who aren't intimately familiar with the Civil War. When Union forces marched through Georgia and liberated Andersonville in May 1865, photographers were brought in to record the scenes of overcrowding, sickness, and death, ensuring the sight was preserved for future generations to see. Unable to supply its own armies, the Confederates had inadequately supplied the prison and its thousands of Union prisoners, leaving over 25% of the prisoners to die of starvation and disease. All told, Andersonville accounted for 40% of the deaths of all Union prisoners in the South, and the causes of death included malnutrition, disease, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and exposure to inclement weather. In fact, Andersonville infuriated the North so much that Henry Wirz, the man in charge of Andersonville, was the only Confederate executed after the war. Conversely, Camp Douglas, closed at roughly the same time, was torn down, and its very existence was nearly wiped from memory. The attempt to forget Camp Douglas was understandable, because in the last two years of the war, at least 4,000 Confederate prisoners died there, meaning nearly 1 in 5 Confederates who were sent there never left. In many ways, the story of Camp Douglas is the story of the Civil War itself. The camp got its start as a brand new facility filled with men ready to fight a war that most on both sides believed would last only a few months. However, as the war went on, the facilities were overwhelmed by the sheer scale of the damage and the massive numbers of people involved. In the first few years of the war, the kind of total war practiced by Grant and Sherman in 1864 was unthinkable, and the two sides liberally conducted prisoner exchanges and paroled prisoners based solely on their word. As time passed, however, bitterness hardened between the two sides, and the war aims changed as the North looked for new strategies to finally subdue the South. The resulting chain of events led to the horrors of Camp Douglas. Camp Douglas: The History of the Notorious Union Prison Camp that Became Known as the North's Andersonville examines how Camp Douglas earned its awful moniker, and what life was like there for Confederate prisoners. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Camp Douglas like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAmong all the world's capitals, few contain a governmental seat of power as imposing or impressive as the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia. While the name itself is often used as a shorthand to refer to the Russian government, and many people associate it with Red Square, the Kremlin is actually a fortress inside the heart of Moscow, replete with everything from ramparts and towers to decadent churches. The history of Russia is vast and winding, so it should come as no surprise that the same can be said for the Kremlin. Construction on the site was taking place by the 12th century, and by the 14th century it was imposing enough to withstand sieges. Ivan the Great added artistic flourishes to the Kremlin during the Renaissance, Catherine the Great had a residence built inside it during the 18th century, and Napoleon severely damaged the Kremlin in the course of ordering its destruction during the invasion of Russia in 1812. Even as Russian dynasties came and went, and a transition to the Soviet Union was made, the Kremlin remained, even as constant changes took place within it. For over two centuries, the capital of America has been located in Washington, D. C., and among all the iconic landmarks and monuments associated with the city, nothing provides symbolism quite like the White House, the primary residence and office of the president. The instantly recognizable exterior and its location have ensured that the White House is associated as the main seat of power in the world's most powerful country. At the same time, the majesty of the White House and its tranquil setting belie its rather chaotic history, which includes being burned down by the British during the War of 1812, suffering damage during wild inaugural balls, and undergoing countless renovations. As Brian Kelly, author of Best Little Stories from the White House: More Than 100 True Stories, put it, "You could almost argue, in fact, that it wasn't finished, truly, until yesterday. And...who knows what they may do to it tomorrow, as it has undergone so many changes, additions, improvements, and even subtractions in its two-hundred-year history. The fact is, the White House we see today is not the White House of yore." Just as the interior has changed, the use of the White House has also changed considerably over time. While the White House was always intended to serve as the president's home and a place to receive dignitaries, in the early 19th century, the White House was open to the public, to the extent that people could simply call on the president. Perhaps most notably, the White House has historically been open to public tours, albeit with exceptions made based on security issues, wars, and budget issues. The availability of the public to tour the White House is a strong reminder that while it may house the president during his term, the place ultimately belongs to the people. The White House and the Kremlin: The History and Legacy of the World's Most Famous Official Residences looks at the history of both seats of power, how they've changed over time, and what's inside them. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about the White House and Kremlin like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingAfter the first year of the Civil War, the Confederacy was faced with a serious problem. While the South had enjoyed some stunning victories on land, they had been all but cut off from the world at sea. The more industrialized North had realized that in case of an extended war, the best way to defeat the Confederacy was to starve it of supplies. The rebels started the war with no real navy to speak of, and so the federal government quickly set up a blockade of all Southern ports and river mouths. By depriving the South of revenues derived from its main export, cotton, the North seriously injured the Southern economy. Without European intervention and the ability to build a navy that could rival the Union's, the Confederacy was mostly reduced to token resistance and using fast moving ships that could evade the blockade and import and export goods. Again, that was only partially successful, and today, the blockade runners are better known for their extracurricular activities; most notably, some of the crews also acted as privateers on the high seas, attacking U. S. shipping and taking any loot for themselves. The daring exploits of these commerce raiders caught the imagination of Southern soldiers and civilians and buoyed up morale, even as the war news turned increasingly grim. Given how deadly the war was, what makes the history of the CSS Shenandoah, the last ship of the Civil War to surrender, all the more remarkable is that it was one of the only forces not to inflict casualties. It is also an intriguing story, for it begins with a tale of spies at work, not in a country torn apart by war, but in England, a nation both drawn to and terrified of the Civil War. There, the Sea King was purchased and became a different type of ship with a different name, rigged for fighting and rebranded the CSS Shenandoah. Somewhat ironically, it was named for one of the South's most appealing regions, one absolutely fought over and ravaged several times during the war. Of course, the Shenandoah was also responsible for millions of dollars' worth of destruction to private civilians' property, actions the Confederates justified in late 1864 by pointing to the total war promoted by General Ulysses S. Grant, and especially General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was cutting a wide swathe through Georgia around the time the Shenandoah set sail from Liverpool in late 1864. As Sherman completed the March to the Sea, Lieutenant Commander James Waddell aboard the Shenandoah drove whalers from their ships, took their cargo, and then destroyed their vessels. In the end, it was not what the Shenandoah did that made it controversial so much as when it did it, because thanks to the painfully slow communications of the 19th century, the crew of the ship wrought some of the most serious damage in the weeks after the war was over. Indeed, when the ship surrendered to the British government in November 1865, it became the last Confederate vessel in the world to do so, meaning the crew faced the possibility of being labeled pirates. Fortunately, it was recognized at the time, as it is today, that this was merely an accident of history, not deliberate piracy, and the men were not prosecuted. Instead, they returned to their home with more stories to tell than most sailors, and less blood on their hands. The CSS Shenandoah: The History of the Famous Confederate Raider that Surrendered Over Half a Year After the Civil War Ended examines how the legendary ship preyed on Union shipping across the globe during and after the war. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about the CSS Shenandoah like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes ancient accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further readingChristmas is the most important holiday of the year. After the corresponding days that exalt the national pride of each country, such as Independence Day in the United States, Victory Day in Russia, or Bastille Day in France, it's December 25 that articulates the life, the work and the economy in much of the world, including many non-Christian countries. Since ancient times, the beginning of winter has been the occasion for most people to eat, drink, dance, and get together to beat the drum and take a break. One of the most important figures constantly brought up during the Christmas season is Saint Nicholas, despite the fact most people know little about him. In the 21st century, Saint Nicholas (or as people often refer to him, "Jolly Old Saint Nick") has been reduced to a pretend, adorably portly grandfather-type, a visual often accompanied by a fleet of magical reindeer and a bustling workshop staffed by endlessly cheerful elves. Most assume, quite understandably, that Saint Nicholas was the fount of inspiration that Santa Claus' myth weavers steadily drank from over the centuries. While this is accurate to some extent, it is important to remember that the parallels between Saint Nicholas and the present-day Santa Claus marketed by mass media are actually quite limited. Santa Claus is a man with many monikers - Kris Kringle, Father Christmas, Papai Noel, among others - and is perhaps the most iconic and internationally recognized personality in recent history. Pop culture enthusiasts know to trace Santa's roots to Saint Nicholas, and it's widely accepted that Coke manufactured the contemporary image of Santa embraced by the world today. On both counts, they are only partially correct, because in reality, Santa is a colorful amalgamation of different figures who appear in various countries' folk stories across a wide range of centuries. For starters, despite centuries of unabashed whitewashing, science has confirmed that Saint Nicholas, as his birthplace should suggest, was not white, nor was he excessively overweight. In the early 2000s, teams of researchers acquired copies of x-rays and logs of measurements originally compiled by scientists of Nicholas's skull in 1950, in the hopes of examining its framework in further detail. In 2004, a facial anthropologist at the University of Manchester, Dr. Caroline Wilkinson, succeeded in producing a forensically reconstructed 3D model of Nicholas's face; the reconstruction was refined in 2014. In both reconstructions, which captured Nicholas around the time of his death, his skin is olive-toned. It seems that he did sport a full beard, but it was untamed, scraggly, and silvery. He was balding and had benign, but forgettable features, with slightly protruding ears, brown eyes the shape of almonds, and small, sunken cheeks. And whereas Santa is, to most young ones, deceptively tremendous in both height and girth, more so when pictured with his tiny elves, Nicholas was roughly 5'6. Then there are the scientists who insist that he was shorter, and that his height was considerably below average, at just about 5'0.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"So, there lies the brave de Kalb. The generous stranger, who came from a distant land to fight our battles and to water with his blood the tree of liberty. Would to God he had lived to share its fruits " - George Washington By the time the Revolutionary War started, military confrontations between the world powers had become so common that combat was raised to the status of a fine art, consuming a large portion of time for adolescent males in training and comprising a sizeable component of the economy. Weaponry was developed to a degree of quality not accessible to most North Americans, and European aristocrats were reared in the mastery of swordsmanship with an emphasis on the saber for military use. Likewise, the cavalry, buoyed by a tradition of expert horsemanship and saddle-based combat, was a fighting force largely beyond reach for colonists, which meant that fighting on horses was an undeveloped practice in the fledgling Continental Army, and the American military did not yet fully comprehend the value of cavalry units. Few sword masters were to find their way to North America in time for the war, and the typical American musket was a fair hunting weapon rather than a military one. Even the foot soldier knew little of European military discipline. German participation is historically noted for the Hessians, mercenary soldiers recruited in whole companies by Britain, whose standing army featured relatively low numbers when the American Revolution began. However, other Germans noted for their mastery of the science of war sided with the colonies, and one of them was Baron Johann von de Kalb, a mentor and elder colleague of the legendary Marquis de Lafayette. Considered by some to be far too old for one attempting to rejuvenate the career of a soldier, de Kalb was a keen student of war with a steady mind and hand. Once able to prove his worth to the Continental Congress, he rose immediately to the rank of Brigadier General under George Washington, served with distinction, and died heroically in the Battle of Camden, a battle in the South that foretold the eventual surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown. For professionals of a European country to graft themselves to the culture of another was not so unusual in the 18th century, whether in the arts, government, or the military, but de Kalb was distinctly unique from a young age as a German with a strong Francophile bent. As a youth, he served in a German infantry division training and fighting for the French king, and after two grisly wars that left no nation in Europe untouched, he threw off his anticipated retirement and turned toward the American Revolution against Britain. By the time of his participation in the American theater, de Kalb was in his 50s, but given that he was still physically strong and well-trained in combat, he took up the fight against Britain as a matter of personal rejuvenation, on both a political and emotional level. In his efforts on behalf of the colonies, he proved himself to possess extraordinary vitality, regardless of age, and his legacy, much like that of his prot ge, remains a strong one. To this day, he is commemorated by numerous communities and counties across the present-day U. S. Baron Johann de Kalb: The Life and Legacy of the German Major General Who Fought in the American Revolution profiles one of the Revolutionary War's most famous soldiers. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about de Kalb like never before.

*Includes pictures*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption, as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But as soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced... Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus had no need of praetorian cohorts, or of countless legions to guard them, but were defended by their own good lives, the good-will of their subjects, and the attachment of the senate." - Niccolo Machiavelli"If a man were called upon to fix that period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the deaths of Domitian to the accession of Commodus." - Edward Gibbon "The Five Good Emperors," a reference to the five emperors who ruled the Roman Empire between 96 and 180 CE (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius), was a term first coined by Machiavelli and later adopted and popularized by historian Edward Gibbon, who said that under these men, the Roman Empire "was governed by absolute power under the guidance of wisdom and virtue." This period of 84 years is generally regarded as the high point of the Roman Empire, at least after Augustus, but what is uncertain and a matter of ongoing debate is whether the five emperors were personally responsible for the situation and the accompanying prosperity enjoyed throughout the empire at the time or if they were simply the beneficiaries of the Pax Romana, inaugurated by Augustus in the early part of the 1st century CE. In other words, historians have wondered whether anyone in power during those years would have enjoyed the same rewards. The description of these rulers as "good" is also a matter of interpretation, with some scholars suggesting they were only "good" in comparison to the preceding emperor (Domitian) and the emperor who followed Marcus Aurelius (Commodus). Both of them were horrible rulers in every aspect, making their near contemporaries look all the better. Regardless, it is clear that the era of the Five Good Emperors was one of unparalleled success and wealth, and the reasons Rome reached its zenith at this time are worthy of scrutiny. Perhaps most noteworthy is that none of these five emperors were blood relatives - while the final two are often referred to as the Antonines, they were not, in fact, related except by adoption, a practice that may in itself provide at least part of the answer to the question as to why this particular period was so magnificent. These 84 years also witnessed an impressive growth in the size of the Roman Empire. New acquisitions ranged from northern Britain to Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Dacia. Furthermore, existing possessions were consolidated, and the empire's defenses improved when compared to what had come before. A range of countries that had been client states became fully integrated provinces, and even Italy saw administrative reforms which created further wealth. Throughout the empire, the policy of Romanization proved successful, at least in terms of introducing a common language, enabling standards of living to rise, and creating a political system minimizing internal strife. With all of that said, according to some academics, the success these rulers had in centralizing the empire's administration, while undoubtedly bringing huge benefits, also sowed the seeds for later problems. After all, as so many Roman emperors proved, from Caligula and Nero to Commodus, the empire's approach to governance was predicated on the ruler's ability. When incompetent or insane emperors came to power, the whole edifice came tumbling down.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"As the spring and summer of 1848 advanced, the reports came faster and faster from the gold-mines at Sutter's saw-mill. Stories reached us of fabulous discoveries, and spread throughout the land. Everybody was talking of "Gold gold " until it assumed the character of a fever. Some of our soldiers began to desert; citizens were fitting out trains of wagons and pack-mules to go to the mines. We heard of men earning fifty, five hundred, and thousands of dollars per day..." - William Tecumseh ShermanThe history of California is one that witnessed the rise and fall of several nations and peoples. From the first natives to settle the fertile lands to the encroaching foreigners from the south, east, west, and north, the land that eventually became the Golden State received them all. From across oceans, mountains, plains, and deserts, people came to take advantage of the region's natural resources. In the mid-19th century, the battles would culminate with a young republic claiming the land in its endeavor to stretch from sea to shining sea. Given that Americans were still mostly on the East Coast, the early settlers and prospectors who came west would find a land rich in resources and people but without the means and ability to properly tap those resources. Thus, the land would change hands several times, with the natives stuck in the middle, as they so often were in colonial struggles. One of the most important and memorable events of America's westward push across the frontier came with the discovery of gold in the lands that became California in January 1848. Located thousands of miles away from the country's power centers on the east coast at the time, the announcement came a month before the Mexican-American War had ended, and among the very few Americans that were near the region at the time, many of them were Army soldiers who were participating in the war and garrisoned there. San Francisco was still best known for being a Spanish military and missionary outpost during the colonial era, and only a few hundred called it home. Mexico's independence, and its possession of those lands, had come only a generation earlier. Everything changed almost literally overnight. While the Mexican-American War technically concluded with a treaty in February 1848, the announcement brought an influx of an estimated 90,000 "Forty-Niners" to the region in 1849, hailing from other parts of America and even as far away as Asia. All told, an estimated 300,000 people would come to California over the next few years, as men dangerously trekked thousands of miles in hopes of making a fortune, and in a span of months, San Francisco's population exploded, making it one of the first mining boomtowns to truly spring up in the West. This was a pattern that would repeat itself across the West anytime a mineral discovery was made, from the Southwest and Tombstone to the Dakotas and Deadwood. Of course, that was made possible by the collective memory of the original California gold rush. Despite the mythology and the romantic portrayals that helped make the California Gold Rush, most of the individuals who came to make a fortune struck out instead. The gold rush was a boon to business interests, which ensured important infrastructure developments like the railroad and the construction of westward paths, but ultimately, it also meant that big business reaped most of the profits associated with mining the gold. While the Forty-Niners are often remembered for panning gold out of mountain streams, it required advanced mining technology for most to make a fortune. As the Gold Rush intensified and brought more people to California, it would officially join the Union in 1850, but even that was fraught with political turmoil.

*Includes pictures*Includes contemporary accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading"Dear Editor -I am 8 years old. Some of my little friends say there is no Santa Claus. Papa says, 'If you see it in The Sun, it's so.' Please tell me the truth, is there a Santa Claus?" - Letter written by Virginia O Hanlon in The Sun newspaper (1897)Christmas is the most important holiday of the year. After the corresponding days that exalt the national pride of each country, such as Independence Day in the United States, Victory Day in Russia, or Bastille Day in France, it's December 25 that articulates the life, the work and the economy in much of the world, including many non-Christian countries. Since ancient times, the beginning of winter has been the occasion for most people to eat, drink, dance, and get together to beat the drum and take a break. Especially since the 20th century on, the days adjacent to the holiday have become an occasion to do big business. The winter season is the most solid stimulus for the economy - more than any fiscal package - since the incomes of families, spending, credit, and consumption in all productive sectors are significantly increased. In the United States alone, Christmas sales are estimated to generate $3 trillion. In the early 19th century, two literary works appeared and helped shape Christmas. The first was a collection of stories by Washington Irving, entitled Sketch Book, from 1819. The work "not only gave to American literature the characters of Ichabod Crane and Rip Van Winkle, but sparked widespread interest in Christmas as a cozy domestic ritual." Next came A Visit from St. Nicholas, a children's poem better known as "The Night Before Christmas," which was published anonymously in 1823, but is traditionally attributed to Clement Clarke Moore, a university professor and Biblical scholar. The poem spread quickly and helped install a definitive image of Santa Claus in the popular imagination, with his sleigh, his eight reindeer (each one with a name), his red nose, and his journeys down chimneys to fill children's stockings with toys. Supposedly, Moore got his inspiration during a shopping outing in a sleigh, and he based his Santa Claus on a Dutchman who lived in Chelsea." So up to the house-top the coursers they flew, With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too. And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roofThe prancing and pawing of each little hoof. As I drew in my hand, and was turning around, Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound. He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot, And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;A bundle of toys he had flung on his back, And he looked like a peddler just opening his pack. His eyes -- how they twinkled his dimples how merry His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow, And the beard of his chin was as white as the snow..." Meanwhile, the turning point for old St. Nicholas, now Santa Claus, came with the December 24, 1881 edition of Harper s Weekly. Artist Thomas Nast gave him his definitive look for the Christmas issue as an old man with a huge round belly and a belt, a thick white beard, a red nose, a cap, mistletoe on his head, a miniature horse toy in one hand, a pipe between his fingers, and a child hanging from his neck. Ever since, Santa has been known the world over for being delightfully paunchy and endlessly jolly. To most, these two descriptors alone are enough to conjure up his name, and lead them to envision a round-bellied, grandfather-type, clad in a fur-trimmed, cherry-red ensemble, armed with candy canes and a bottomless sack of presents, and blessed with a bushy, silvery-white beard.

*Includes pictures*Includes accounts*Includes online resources and a bibliography for further reading "Wuld that I was an artist & had the material to paint this camp & all its horors or the tounge of some eloquent Statesman and had the privleage of expresing my mind to our hon. rulers at Washington, I should gloery to describe this hell on earth where it takes 7 of its ocupiants to make a shadow." - Sgt. David Kennedy "There is so much filth about the camp that it is terrible trying to live here." - Michigan cavalryman John RansomNotorious, a hell on earth, a cesspool, a death camp, and infamous have all been used by prisoners and critics to describe Andersonville Prison, constructed to house Union prisoners of war in 1864, and all descriptions apply. Located in Andersonville, Georgia and known colloquially as Camp Sumter, Andersonville only served as a prison camp for 14 months, but during that time 45,000 Union soldiers suffered there, and nearly 13,000 died. Victims found at the end of the war who had been held at Camp Sumter resembled victims of Auschwitz, starving and left to die with no regard for human life. Rumors about the horrors of Andersonville were making the rounds by the summer of 1864, and they were bad enough that during the Atlanta campaign, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman gave orders for a cavalry raid attempting to liberate the prisoners there. The Union cavalry were repulsed by Southern militia and cavalry at that point, and even after Sherman took Atlanta, the retreating Confederates moved under the assumption that the Union would target Andersonville yet again. Before the end of the war, the Confederates were moving prisoners from Andersonville to Camp Lawton, but by then, Andersonville was already synonymous with horror. Unable to supply its own armies, the Confederates had inadequately supplied the prison and its thousands of Union prisoners, leaving over 25% of the prisoners to die of starvation and disease. All told, Andersonville accounted for 40% of the deaths of all Union prisoners in the South, and the causes of death included malnutrition, disease, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and exposure to inclement weather. In fact, Andersonville infuriated the North so much that Henry Wirz, the man in charge of Andersonville, was the only Confederate executed after the war. When Union forces marched through Georgia and liberated Andersonville in May 1865, photographers were brought in to record the scenes of overcrowding, sickness, and death, ensuring the sight was preserved for future generations to see. Conversely, Camp Douglas, closed at roughly the same time, was torn down, and its very existence was nearly wiped from memory. The attempt to forget Camp Douglas was understandable, because in the last two years of the war, at least 4,000 Confederate prisoners died there, meaning nearly 1 in 5 Confederates who were sent there never left. In many ways, the story of Camp Douglas is the story of the Civil War itself. The camp got its start as a brand new facility filled with men ready to fight a war that most on both sides believed would last only a few months. However, as the war went on, the facilities were overwhelmed by the sheer scale of the damage and the massive numbers of people involved. In the first few years of the war, the kind of total war practiced by Grant and Sherman in 1864 was unthinkable, and the two sides liberally conducted prisoner exchanges and paroled prisoners based solely on their word. As time passed, however, bitterness hardened between the two sides, and the war aims changed as the North looked for new strategies to finally subdue the South. The resulting chain of events led to the horrors of Camp Douglas. This book examines how Andersonville and Camp Douglas became so notorious, and what life was like there for the prisoners.